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Topic Review
Value-Added Polyhydroxyalkanoates
The synthesis of polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs), a bioplastic that can be used to replace traditional (petrol-based) plastics, is an important focus in today’s politically and environmentally conscious society. 
  • 1.2K
  • 19 Sep 2022
Topic Review
TRAILR2/DR5-Mediated Activation of Apoptosis upon Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress
The uncontrolled proliferation of malignant cells in growing tumors results in the generation of different stressors in the tumor microenvironment, such as nutrient shortage, hypoxia, and acidosis, among others, that disrupt endoplasmic reticulum (ER) homeostasis and may lead to ER stress. As a response to ER stress, both normal and tumor cells launch a set of signaling pathways known as the unfolded protein response (UPR) to restore ER proteostasis and maintain cell viability and function. However, under sustained ER stress, an apoptotic cell death process can be induced, although the role of the (TNF)-related apoptosis-inducing ligand receptor 2 (TRAIL-R2/DR5)-activated extrinsic pathway of apoptosis has not yet been thoroughly summarized.
  • 1.2K
  • 26 Sep 2022
Topic Review
Biological Activities of Some Species of Genus Eryngium
There are approximately 250 species of Eryngium L. distributed throughout the world, with North America and South America being centers of diversity on this continent. In the central-western region of Mexico there may be around 28 species of this genus. Some Eryngium species are cultivated as leafy vegetables, ornamental, and medicinal plants. In traditional medicine they are used to treat respiratory and gastrointestinal conditions, diabetes, and dyslipidemia, among others. 
  • 1.2K
  • 30 May 2023
Topic Review
Gestational Factors Throughout Fetal Neurodevelopment
Serotonin (5-HT) is a critical player in brain development and neuropsychiatric disorders. Fetal 5-HT levels can be influenced by several gestational factors, such as maternal genotype, diet, stress, medication, and immune activation. In this review, addressing both human and animal studies, we discuss how these gestational factors affect placental and fetal brain 5-HT levels, leading to changes in brain structure and function and behavior. We conclude that gestational factors are able to interact and thereby amplify or counteract each other’s impact on the fetal 5-HT-ergic system. We, therefore, argue that beyond the understanding of how single gestational factors affect 5-HT-ergic brain development and behavior in offspring, it is critical to elucidate the consequences of interacting factors. Moreover, we describe how each gestational factor is able to alter the 5-HT-ergic influence on the thalamocortical- and prefrontal-limbic circuitry and the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenocortical-axis. These alterations have been associated with risks to develop attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, autism spectrum disorders, depression, and/or anxiety. Consequently, the manipulation of gestational factors may be used to combat pregnancy-related risks for neuropsychiatric disorders.
  • 1.2K
  • 27 Oct 2020
Topic Review
Genetically Encoded Biosensors for O2 and ROS Detection
The intracellular concentrations of oxygen and reactive oxygen species (ROS) in living cells represent critical information for investigating physiological and pathological conditions. Real-time measurement often relies on genetically encoded proteins that are responsive to fluctuations in either oxygen or ROS concentrations. The direct binding or chemical reactions that occur in their presence either directly alter the fluorescence properties of the binding protein or alter the fluorescence properties of fusion partners, mostly consisting of variants of the green fluorescent protein. Oxygen sensing takes advantage of several mechanisms, including (i) the oxygen-dependent hydroxylation of a domain of the hypoxia-inducible factor-1, which, in turn, promotes its cellular degradation along with fluorescent fusion partners; (ii) the naturally oxygen-dependent maturation of the fluorophore of green fluorescent protein variants; and (iii) direct oxygen binding by proteins, including heme proteins, expressed in fusion with fluorescent partners, resulting in changes in fluorescence due to conformational alterations or fluorescence resonance energy transfer. 
  • 1.2K
  • 06 Nov 2023
Topic Review
Peroxisome Proliferator-activated Receptors (PPARs)
Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) are a family of ligand-activated receptors/transcriptional factors composed by three distinct isoforms called PPARα (nuclear receptor subfamily 1 group C, NR1C1), PPARβ/δ (NR1C2), and PPARγ (NR1C3), each of which is encoded by independent genes in rodents and humans.
  • 1.2K
  • 29 Mar 2021
Topic Review
Extracellular Vesicles Cargo and Roles
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are membranous structures produced in the endosomal system or generated by plasma membrane shedding, which have been identified as an important hallmark for intercellular communication. Among them, a particular category of EVs are the exosomes, which are nanovesicles of approximately 30-150 nm, produced in the endosomal pathway. 
  • 1.2K
  • 27 Nov 2020
Topic Review
Radiolabeled Gold Nanoseeds and Glioblastoma Multiforme
Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM), classified as a grade IV brain tumor, represents the most frequent brain tumor, accounting for approximately 12–15% of all intracranial neoplasms. Current therapeutic strategies for GBM rely on open surgery, chemotherapy and radiotherapy. Despite some progress in the past 30 years, the overall survival of patients with glioblastoma remains extremely poor. The average lifespan is approximately 15 months after diagnosis, with most patients experiencing tumor relapse and outgrowth within 7–10 months of initial radiation therapy.
  • 1.2K
  • 14 Jan 2022
Topic Review
Mitochondrial Aging and Natural Products with Protective Potential
It was found that mitochondrial activity decreases with aging and that degeneration is linked to the reductions in mitochondria, mRNA transcripts, protein expression, and mtDNA and increased oxidative stress. In particular, reduced protein synthesis hinders protein turnover. The inability to replace damaged proteins may explain why aging is related to reduced mitochondrial function. Mitochondria, the cellular organelles that produce most of the ATP, become dysfunctional during aging. This condition is coupled with inflammation, oxidative stress, and reduced cellular functionalities in every organ. Numerous genes have been linked to aging, with some favoring it (gerontogenes) and others blocking it (genes of longevity pathways). The desire for eternal youth is a constant in the history of humanity. The increased life expectancy in industrialized countries has unfortunately also led to a significant increase in the incidence of age-related diseases (ARDs) such as neurodegenerative diseases, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and cancers.
  • 1.2K
  • 27 Dec 2022
Topic Review
The Structure and Function of ABCA1
The adenosine triphosphate (ATP)-binding cassette transporter A1 (ABCA1) was identified by Luciani et al. over 36 years ago by PCR cloning and found to be located on chromosome 9q22-31. ABCA1 belongs to what was then a growing family of transmembrane proteins sharing many structural and functional similarities. ABCA1 was initially thought to be involved in the phagocytosis of apoptotic cells and to play a role in the regulation of the inflammatory response. Recent studies of structure-function relationships have shown that ABCA1 transports cholesterol and phospholipids across the plasma membrane to generate high-density lipoproteins (HDLs).
  • 1.2K
  • 28 Feb 2023
Topic Review
MiRNA–RBP Binding Functions
MicroRNAs (miRNAs), short-chain RNAs of 18–22 nt chain length, are expressed in all vertebrates and control tissue development, differentiation, cell growth, and apoptosis in non-cancer and cancer cells. Additionally, miRNAs target mRNAs on the basis of their sequence and decrease protein production by inhibiting mRNA translation or destroying the mRNAs, thereby controlling cellular homeostasis. miRNA expression is controlled through DNA modification, such as by methylation and transcriptional factors through the signal-transduction pathway. miRNAs are transcribed as pri-mature from DNA and are then processed by the Drosha complex, thus generating pre-miRNAs. These pre-miRNAs are transported by exportin 5 from the nucleus to the cytoplasm and further processed by Dicer to form the double-stranded miRNA RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC). RISCs involving single-strand miRNAs, comprising Ago, Dicer, and trans-activation-responsive RNA-binding protein (TRBP) 2, are directed to the mRNA targets, thus regulating protein expressions. To date, the bioinformatics databases TargetScan (http://www.targetscan.org/vert_72/, 26 September 2021) and miRTarBase (http://mirtarbase.cuhk.edu.cn/php/index.php, 26 September 2021) have been used to predict the interaction between miRNAs and target mRNAs.
  • 1.2K
  • 01 Dec 2021
Topic Review
RNA Structure and RNA–RNA Interactions
Complex RNA–RNA interactions are increasingly known to play key roles in numerous biological processes from gene expression control to ribonucleoprotein granule formation. By contrast, the nature of these interactions and characteristics of their interfaces, especially those that involve partially or wholly structured RNAs, remain elusive. This entry describes different modalities of RNA–RNA interactions with an emphasis on those that depend on secondary, tertiary, or quaternary structure, and highlight a two-way relationship between RNA structure and interactions.
  • 1.2K
  • 12 Jan 2022
Topic Review
Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi and Strigolactone
Plants, the cornerstone of life on Earth, are constantly struggling with a number of challenges arising from both biotic and abiotic stressors. To overcome these adverse factors, plants have evolved complex defense mechanisms involving both a number of cell signaling pathways and a complex network of interactions with microorganisms. Among these interactions, the relationship between symbiotic arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) and strigolactones (SLs) stands as an important interplay that has a significant impact on increased resistance to environmental stresses and improved nutrient uptake and the subsequent enhanced plant growth.
  • 1.2K
  • 06 Dec 2023
Topic Review
Prion Organotypic Slice Culture
The prion organotypic slice culture assay (POSCA) is a cerebellar slice culture that was originally developed to take advantage of the transmissible nature of prions, propagating prion infection ex vivo. Because much of the cytoarchitexture is preserved, this system allows the study of pathogenesis in an open system and is amenable to manipulation of cell types and testing of therapeutics. The culture has been adapted to other brain areas, different prion strains, and has also been applied to other neurodegenerative diseases that are prion-like in their transmissible propagation of protein misfolding, including Alzheimer’s disease, frontotemporal dementia, Parkinson’s disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and Huntington’s disease. This entry provides a review of POSCA as used in the prion field. For a review of its application to other neurodegenerative diseases, please see the associated review article in Biomolecules.
  • 1.2K
  • 11 Aug 2020
Topic Review
Membrane Proteins
(Trans)membrane enzymes are typically not considered as good catalyst in biotechnology, due to difficultlies in production and purification. However, a growing number of applications are proposed in bioelectrocatalysis as membrane enzymes catalyse a number of energy-conversion reactions that are key in society. Bioelectrocatalytic systems that have been developed broadly fall in two catagories: (a) enzymatic biofuel cells and (b) biophotoelectrocatalyst. In order for these systems to function efficiently, the interface between the electrode surface and the membrane enzymes needs to be specifically tailored to retain the structural integrity of these amphiphilic macromolecules while - at the same time - enable fast electron exchange between the solid surface and the protein. This entry summarises key approaches in this area, which we here coin as "membrane protein modified electrodes".
  • 1.2K
  • 11 Jan 2021
Topic Review
Established Opto-Chemical Tools
As light inherently possesses exceptional spatiotemporal precision, photo-responsive molecules are great candidates for the modulation of biological activities with high spatiotemporal resolution. The two most common opto-chemical strategies are photo-induced conformational changes and light-induced uncaging which typically implies chemical caging of small molecules, oligonucleotides, and peptides and proteins.
  • 1.2K
  • 11 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Physical Methods Used to Inactivate Bacteriophages
Bacteriophage-based applications have a renaissance today, increasingly marking their use in industry, medicine, food processing, biotechnology, and more. However, phages are considered resistant to various harsh environmental conditions; besides, they are characterized by high intra-group variability. Phage-related contaminations may therefore pose new challenges in the future due to the wider use of phages in industry and health care. The risk of bacteriophage infection can be reduced by several techniques, including sterilization by physical agents.
  • 1.2K
  • 08 Mar 2023
Topic Review
Accumulation, Competition, and Toxicity of Divalent Cations
The binding of calcium and magnesium ions to proteins is crucial for regulating heart contraction. However, other divalent cations, including xenobiotics, can accumulate in the myocardium and enter cardiomyocytes, where they can bind to proteins.
  • 1.2K
  • 20 Jul 2023
Topic Review
Ring Finger Protein 11
RNF11 (Ring Finger Protein 11) is a 154 amino-acid long protein that contains a RING-H2 domain, whose sequence has remained substantially unchanged throughout vertebrate evolution. RNF11 has drawn attention as a modulator of protein degradation by HECT E3 ligases.
  • 1.2K
  • 24 Nov 2020
Topic Review
MEIS1 in Hematopoiesis and Cancer
MEIS1 is highly expressed in the bone marrow, and its predominant and better-known role is in embryonic and adult hematopoiesis. Along withPBX1 and HOXA9, MEIS1 is expressed in hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) but downregulated during their differentiation.
  • 1.2K
  • 27 Oct 2021
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