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Topic Review
SARS-CoV-2 Infection and Cardioncology
The coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) is a highly transmissible viral illness caused by SARS-CoV-2, which has been defined by the World Health Organization as a pandemic, considering its remarkable transmission speed worldwide. SARS-CoV-2 interacts with angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 and TMPRSS2, which is a serine protease both expressed in lungs, the gastro-intestinal tract, and cardiac myocytes. Patients with COVID-19 experienced adverse cardiac events (hypertension, venous thromboembolism, arrhythmia, myocardial injury, fulminant myocarditis), and patients with previous cardiovascular disease have a higher risk of death. Cancer patients are extremely vulnerable with a high risk of viral infection and more negative prognosis than healthy people, and the magnitude of effects depends on the type of cancer, recent chemotherapy, radiotherapy, or surgery and other concomitant comorbidities (diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, metabolic syndrome). Patients with active cancer or those treated with cardiotoxic therapies may have heart damages exacerbated by SARS-CoV-2 infection than non-cancer patients.
  • 907
  • 20 Feb 2021
Topic Review
TG-Rich Lipoproteins
Very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) and chylomicrons, which are known as TG-rich lipoproteins (TRLs), are spherical particles with core lipids (TG and cholesterol esters), phospholipids, free cholesterol, and surface apolipoproteins. The origins of TGs are generally exogenous or endogenous. Exogenous TG is mostly obtained from daily diet and transported within chylomicrons, while endogenous TG circulates in VLDL and is mostly formed in the hepatobiliary system.
  • 902
  • 07 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Cardiovascular Risk Stratification and Cancer
Cancer patients receiving a potentially cardiotoxic oncologic therapy have an increased risk of cardiovascular adverse events (CVAEs), especially in presence of concomitant arterial hypertension (AH). Therefore, cancer patients should be evaluated before, during and after cardiotoxic treatments, to early identify new-onset or worsening AH or CVAEs. An expert panel of oncology networks from Piedmont and Aosta Valley (North-Western Italy) aimed to provide recommendations to support health professionals in selecting the best management strategies for patients, considering the impact on outcome and the risk–benefit ratio of diagnostic/therapeutic tools.
  • 898
  • 28 Jan 2021
Topic Review
Ubiquitylation
Ubiquitylation is a post-translational modification that covalently conjugates the ubiquitin molecule through the C-terminus to a lysine residue on a substrate protein. Ubiquitylation results in the turnover of the ubiquitylated substrate protein by either the proteasome or lysosome, a change in subcellular localization of the substrate protein, or alteration of substrate protein function . Ubiquitylation is mediated by three enzymes and scaffolding proteins: E1, E2, and E3.
  • 898
  • 22 Jun 2021
Topic Review
Oxidative Stress in Cardiovascular Diseases
       This entry aims to introduce the physiological roles and pathological implications of oxidative stress in cardiovascular tissues
  • 882
  • 28 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Endothelial Nitric Oxide Synthase in Perivascular Adipose Tissue
Perivascular adipose tissue (PVAT) is a special type of ectopic fat depot that adheres to most vasculatures. PVAT has been shown to exert anticontractile effects on the blood vessels and confers protective effects against metabolic and cardiovascular diseases. PVAT plays a critical role in vascular homeostasis via secreting adipokine, hormones, and growth factors. Endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS; also known as NOS3 or NOSIII) is well-known for its role in the generation of vasoprotective nitric oxide (NO). eNOS is primarily expressed, but not exclusively, in endothelial cells, while studies have identified its expression in both adipocytes and endothelial cells of PVAT. PVAT eNOS is an important player in the protective role of PVAT.
  • 879
  • 08 Aug 2022
Topic Review
Oxidative Stress in the Natural History of Atrial Fibrillation
Atrial fibrillation (AF) is the most common type of cardiac arrhythmia and its prevalence increases with age. The irregular and rapid contraction of the atria can lead to ineffective blood pumping, local blood stasis, blood clots, ischemic stroke, and heart failure. NADPH oxidases (NOX) and mitochondria are the main sources of reactive oxygen species in the heart, and dysregulated activation of NOX and mitochondrial dysfunction are associated with AF pathogenesis. NOX- and mitochondria-derived oxidative stress contribute to the onset of paroxysmal AF by inducing electrophysiological changes in atrial myocytes and structural remodeling in the atria.
  • 876
  • 20 Oct 2023
Topic Review
Salvia miltiorrhiza
Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge, also known as red sage, is a valued herbal plant in the traditional medicine in Korea, China and Japan. It is called as Dansam in Korea, Danshen in China. It is well known for its highly medicinal properties in treating of heart and vascular diseases, chronic renal failure, Alzheimer’s disease, hepatitis and so forth. Cancer is a group of diseases involving abnormal cell growth with the potential to invade or spread to other parts of the body. 
  • 873
  • 28 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Heart Rate Variability in Hyperthyroidism
Cardiovascular effects of thyroid hormones may be measured through heart rate variability (HRV). Hyperthyroidism is associated with a decreased HRV, which may be explained by the effect of thyroid hormones and thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). The increased sympathetic and decreased parasympathetic activity may have clinical implications.
  • 873
  • 18 Jul 2022
Topic Review
Heart Failure and Cardiorenal Syndrome
In cardiorenal syndrome (CRS), heart failure and renal failure are pathophysiologically closely intertwined by the reciprocal relationship between cardiac and renal injury. Type 1 CRS is most common and associated with acute heart failure. A preexistent chronic kidney disease (CKD) is common and contributes to acute kidney injury (AKI) in CRS type 1 patients (acute cardiorenal syndrome). The remaining CRS types are found in patients with chronic heart failure (type 2), acute and chronic kidney diseases (types 3 and 4), and systemic diseases that affect both the heart and the kidney (type 5). Establishing the diagnosis of CRS requires various tools based on the type of CRS, including non-invasive imaging modalities such as TTE, CT, and MRI, adjuvant volume measurement techniques, invasive hemodynamic monitoring, and biomarkers.
  • 871
  • 19 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Cardiac Tissue Engineering Systems
Cardiac tissue engineering is very much in a current focus of regenerative medicine research as it represents a promising strategy for cardiac disease modelling, cardiotoxicity testing and cardiovascular repair. Advances in this field over the last two decades have enabled the generation of human engineered cardiac tissue constructs with progressively increased functional capabilities. Numerous studies have demonstrated that the therapeutic benefits exerted by cells are mainly attributable to the release of complementary paracrine factors and the efficacy is limited as only a small percentage of transplanted cells engrafted in the infarcted tissue. Studies on animal models showed that combining cell therapy with tissue engineering techniques for the creation of cell sheets and patches, can increase stem cell survival and boost therapeutic action. Therefore, tissue engineering has been considered as a potential approach for cardiac regeneration after MI. 
  • 869
  • 30 Mar 2021
Topic Review
Wearable Sensing Technologies
Standards for the fatigue testing of wearable sensing technologies are lacking. The majority of published fatigue tests for wearable sensors are performed on proof-of-concept stretch sensors fabricated from a variety of materials. Due to their flexibility and stretchability, polymers are often used in the fabrication of wearable sensors. Other materials, including textiles, carbon nanotubes, graphene, and conductive metals or inks, may be used in conjunction with polymers to fabricate wearable sensors.
  • 865
  • 10 Aug 2021
Topic Review
Iron Deficiency in Heart Failure
Iron is an essential micronutrient for a myriad of physiological processes in the body beyond erythropoiesis. Iron deficiency (ID) is a common comorbidity in patients with heart failure (HF), with a prevalence reaching up to 59% even in non-anaemic patients. ID impairs exercise capacity, reduces the quality of life, increases hospitalisation rate and mortality risk regardless of anaemia. Intravenously correcting ID has emerged as a promising treatment in HF as it has been shown to alleviate symptoms, improve quality of life and exercise capacity and reduce hospitalisations. However, the pathophysiology of ID in HF remains poorly characterised. Recognition of ID in HF triggered more research with the aim to explain how correcting ID improves HF status as well as the underlying causes of ID in the first place. In the past few years, significant progress has been made in understanding iron homeostasis by characterising the role of the iron-regulating hormone hepcidin, the effects of ID on skeletal and cardiac myocytes, kidneys and the immune system.
  • 859
  • 11 Apr 2022
Topic Review
Cardiovascular Involvement in Tuberculosis
Approximately 60% of patients with tuberculosis (TB) have a cardiovascular disease, the most common associated pathological entities being pericarditis, myocarditis, and coronary artery disease.
  • 854
  • 08 May 2023
Topic Review
Wearable Sensors and Machine Learning for Hypovolemia Problems
Hypovolemia is a physiological state of reduced blood volume that can exist as either (1) absolute hypovolemia because of a lower circulating blood (plasma) volume for a given vascular space (dehydration, hemorrhage) or (2) relative hypovolemia resulting from an expanded vascular space (vasodilation) for a given circulating blood volume (e.g., heat stress, hypoxia, sepsis). The external environment and the user's level of physical activity can exacerbate hypovolemic challenges to the body. Noninvasive, wearable sensing systems are being developed to track a user's ability to compensate for these challenges. 
  • 852
  • 13 Jan 2022
Topic Review
Development of Organ Specificity among Endothelial Cells
Endothelial cells have a mesodermal origin; during vasculogenesis, a “first draft” of the vascular system is laid down to support the growing embryo. Vascular endothelial cells line the entire circulatory system and show remarkable heterogeneity. Even though endothelial cells originate from the same progenitor cells during development, they eventually contribute to different subtypes of endothelia. Based on morphology, the microvasculature consists of three main phenotypes: discontinuous, fenestrated, and non-fenestrated endothelium.
  • 850
  • 21 Feb 2022
Topic Review
The Polarized Cardiac Arrest
The concept of “polarized arrest” is attractive because maintaining the membrane potential close to the resting potential value reduces the untoward effects of Ca2+ loading. A polarised tissue is also more resistant to ischemia and inflammations reported by several in vitro and animal studies. The future of polarized arrest is an exciting one and may play an important role in treating the next generation of patients who are older, sicker with multiple comorbidities and require more complex operations with prolonged cross-clamping times.
  • 849
  • 26 Oct 2021
Topic Review
The Interventricular Septum
Vertebrates developed pulmonary circulation and septated the heart into venous and arterial compartments, as the adaptation from aquatic to terrestrial life requires more oxygen and energy. The interventricular septum (IVS) accommodates the ventricular portion of the conduction system and contributes to the mechanical function of both ventricles. Conditions or diseases that affect IVS structure and function (e.g., hypertrophy, defects, other) may lead to ventricular pump failure and/or ventricular arrhythmias with grave consequences. IVS structure and function can be evaluated today using current imaging techniques. Effective therapies can be provided in most cases, although definitions of underlying etiologies may not always be easy, particularly in the elderly due to overlap between genetic and acquired causes of IVS hypertrophy, the most common being IVS abnormality.
  • 848
  • 24 Jun 2022
Topic Review Video
The Link between Cardiovascular Disease and Exosomes
Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the leading cause of morbidity and mortality globally. In recent decades, clinical research has made significant advances, resulting in improved survival and recovery rates for patients with CVD. Despite this progress, there is substantial residual CVD risk and an unmet need for better treatment. The complex and multifaceted pathophysiological mechanisms underlying the development of CVD pose a challenge for researchers seeking effective therapeutic interventions. Consequently, exosomes have emerged as a new focus for CVD research because their role as intercellular communicators gives them the potential to act as noninvasive diagnostic biomarkers and therapeutic nanocarriers. In the heart and vasculature, cell types such as cardiomyocytes, endothelial cells, vascular smooth muscle, cardiac fibroblasts, inflammatory cells, and resident stem cells are involved in cardiac homeostasis via the release of exosomes. Exosomes encapsulate cell-type specific miRNAs, and this miRNA content fluctuates in response to the pathophysiological setting of the heart, indicating that the pathways affected by these differentially expressed miRNAs may be targets for new treatments.
  • 847
  • 04 May 2023
Topic Review
Physical Activity for the Elderly Cardiovascular Diseases Prevention
Cardiovascular disease prevention in the general population, and especially in older adults, starts from lifestyle modification. To prevent cardiovascular disease not just in elderly patients, but in all age groups, it is recommended to avoid a sedentary lifestyle and to exercise within the limits of individual tolerance. It is common knowledge that physical exercise has a positive impact on improving health and quality of life. In the elderly, regular exercise can exert an important contribution in reducing falls, maintaining good physical function and maintaining a good quality of life.
  • 844
  • 30 Dec 2021
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