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Topic Review
Cilia and Skeletal Muscle
Cilia are comprised of microtubule bundles organised into an axoneme and anchored by a mature centriole or basal body. Primary cilia are dynamic signalling platforms that are intimately involved in cellular responses to their extracellular milieu. Cilia on fibroblasts/fibro–adipogenic progenitors and myofibroblasts may influence cell fate in both a cell autonomous and non-autonomous manner with critical consequences for skeletal muscle ageing and repair in response to injury and disease.
  • 858
  • 22 Nov 2021
Topic Review
Airway Inflammation
The effects of airway inflammation on airway smooth muscle (ASM) are mediated by pro-inflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα).
  • 855
  • 12 Jan 2021
Topic Review
Nrf2 in Neurogenesis and Disease Development
Neurogenesis occurs in the brain during embryonic development and throughout adulthood. Neurogenesis occurs in the hippocampus and under normal conditions and persists in two regions of the brain—the subgranular zone (SGZ) in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus and the subventricular zone (SVZ) of the lateral ventricles. The transcription factor Nrf2 (nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2) is a major regulator of metabolism, protein quality control, and antioxidative defense, and is linked to neurogenesis. 
  • 853
  • 13 Jul 2022
Topic Review
Differentiation of Genes Encoding Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptors
The heritability of the tendency to obesity is estimated to vary widely (from 5% to 90%), depending on the research method and the hypotheses being tested. Genetic components may play an important role, both in regulating metabolism and influencing behavioral aspects-in the presence of certain critical genetic variants, the dysregulation of energy metabolism can undoubtedly lead to an increased risk of obesity. Genes code for protein products that are directly involved in the processes of digestion, assimilation, and physiological utilization of nutrients supplied to the body. There are also genes whose products are important factors that influence the activation and regulation of various metabolic pathways and also determine the maintenance of the balance of metabolic changes and the shift of this balance in a specific direction. Finally, there are the genes that code for factors that influence human behavior, eating habits, dietary preferences and so on. Systemic regulation of metabolism takes place in human cells at many levels. At the deepest molecular level, metabolic flexibility depends on the configuration of many different metabolic pathways regulated by key transcription factors, many of which interact closely with each other. From this point of view, transcription factors are considered very important elements of metabolic regulatory networks. In this group, genes encoding peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) are among the best studied. PPARs provide balance in nutrient and energy metabolism and maintain metabolic flexibility important for lipid metabolism, glucose homeostasis, cholesterol metabolism, and other important metabolic networks. Differentiation of PPAR genes may affect the efficacy of reduction diets and post-exercise weight loss.
  • 850
  • 06 Jan 2023
Topic Review
The Initiation of Apoptosis
Apoptosis is a normal physiological process of highly regulated cell death that occurs in most multicellular organisms. Apoptosis plays an important role in the cell cycle and is an integral part of the immune system under physiological and pathological conditions. Disorders of apoptosis are associated with autoimmune diseases, bacterial and viral diseases, heart disease, and neurodegeneration. Apoptosis is defined as an energy-dependent cell death which is one of the pathological characteristics of ischemia/reperfusion injury (IRI).
  • 840
  • 09 Mar 2022
Topic Review
The PD-1/PD-L1 Pathway
Binding of the immune checkpoint programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1) to its ligand programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) downregulates the adaptive immune response. PD-L1 is regularly expressed by antigen presenting cells. During an acute immune response, effector T cells transiently upregulate PD-1. In contrast, chronic immune stimulation leads to continuous expression of PD-1 on effector T cells. The latter also occurs in the tumor microenvironment, where PD-L1 can be expressed by tumor cells. The PD-1/PD-L1 pathway is an excellent example for the clinical application of biomarker research in the context of comparative immuno-oncology. Initial comparator studies on this pathway were mainly conducted on cells and tissues derived from mice and humans. This resulted in the discovery of anti PD-1 or anti-PD-L1 immune checkpoint therapy that is widely applied for the treatment of human cancers. The use of monoclonal antibodies directed against PD-1 or PD-L1 as therapeutic agents restores the anti-cancer immune response. In recent years, investigations on these molecules have been extended to canine cancers and confirm the expression of PD-1 and PD-L1 in several canine tumors. Whether immune checkpoint therapy may be a possible treatment option for those canine cancers remains to be revealed in future clinical trials.
  • 833
  • 02 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Autophagy Modulated in Cancer Cachexia
Cancer cachexia is a syndrome experienced by many patients with cancer. Exercise can act as an autophagy modulator, and thus holds the potential to be used to treat cancer cachexia. Autophagy imbalance plays an important role in cancer cachexia, and is correlated to skeletal and cardiac muscle atrophy and energy-wasting in the liver. The molecular mechanism of autophagy modulation in different types of exercise has not yet been clearly defined. This review aims to elaborate on the role of exercise in modulating autophagy in cancer cachexia.
  • 829
  • 18 Aug 2021
Topic Review
Microparticles in Vascular Inflammation
Microparticles (MPs) are extracellular vesicles with a size ranging from 0.1 to 1.0 μm. They carry cargo (mRNA, DNA, lipid and specific proteins) from originating cells and transfer to recipient cells, allowing cell-to-cell communication.
  • 829
  • 05 Nov 2020
Topic Review
Mitochondria in Exercise-Induced Neuroprotection
Regular exercise is associated with pronounced health benefits. The molecular processes involved in physiological adaptations to exercise are best understood in skeletal muscle. Enhanced mitochondrial functions in muscle are central to exercise-induced adaptations. However, regular exercise also benefits the brain and is a major protective factor against neurodegenerative diseases, such as the most common age-related form of dementia, Alzheimer’s disease, or the most common neurodegenerative motor disorder, Parkinson’s disease. 
  • 828
  • 25 Jun 2021
Topic Review
Potential Biochemical Properties and Genetics of C-Reactive Protein
C-Reactive Protein (CRP) is supposed to be an accredited benchmark for physicians, to reveal or rule out inflammation, and multifarious scientific endeavors have been made so as to detect the direct pleiotropic functions of this protein. The use of CRP as the most important and critical immunochemical marker of several medical conditions, including infections such as sepsis, physiological organ diseases, various autoimmune disorders, malignancies and other health conditions, has become widely popular.
  • 827
  • 14 Nov 2023
Topic Review
VEGF Alters Photoreceptor Function
Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is a major therapeutic target for blood–retina barrier (BRB) breakdown in diabetic retinopathy (DR), age-related macular degeneration (AMD), and other hypoxic retinal vascular disorders. VEGF is a direct functional regulator of photoreceptors and VEGF up-regulation in DR is a contributing factor to diabetes-induced alteration of photoreceptor function. This information is critical to the understanding of the therapeutic effect and to the care of anti-VEGF drug-treated patients for BRB breakdown in DR, AMD, and other hypoxic retinal vascular disorders. 
  • 818
  • 22 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Overview of Human Biofluids
An overview of the physiological role of the principal body fluids in human health is discussed, with an emphasis on key aspects of the structure and functions of macrocirculation and microcirculation. The lymph and the lymphatic system are described in detail, as well as blood flow in the respiratory system, the digestive system, the brain, and the eye. The urinary system, the fluids within the gastrointestinal tract, cerebrospinal fluid, serous body fluids, synovial fluid, and other relevant human fluids are also concisely discussed. 
  • 815
  • 23 Sep 2022
Topic Review
Cerebrovascular Permeability during Neuroinflammatory Diseases
Neurons and glial cells in the brain are protected by the blood brain barrier (BBB). The local regulation of blood flow is determined by neurons and signal conducting cells called astrocytes. Alterations in neurons and glial cells affect the function of neurons. However, the majority of effects are coming from other cells and organs of the body. Although it seems obvious that effects beginning in brain vasculature would play an important role in the development of various neuroinflammatory and neurodegenerative pathologies, significant interest has only been directed to the possible mechanisms involved in the development of vascular cognitive impairment and dementia (VCID) for the last decade. Presently, the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke applies considerable attention toward research related to VCID and vascular impairments during Alzheimer’s disease. Thus, any changes in cerebral vessels, such as in blood flow, thrombogenesis, permeability, or others, which affect the proper vasculo-neuronal connection and interaction and result in neuronal degeneration that leads to memory decline should be considered as a subject of investigation under the VCID category. Out of several vascular effects that can trigger neurodegeneration leading to memory decline, changes in cerebrovascular permeability resulting in accumulation of blood plasma proteins and particularly of fibrinogen in extravascular space of the brain seem to cause the most devastating effects.
  • 811
  • 14 Apr 2023
Topic Review
The Cytoskeleton of Contractile Vascular Smooth Muscle Cell
As a key element of the smooth muscle cell contractile apparatus, the actin cytoskeleton participates in the development of force by acting as a molecular track for the myosin cross bridge motor. At the same time, the actin cytoskeleton must transmit the force developed during contraction to the extracellular matrix and, thus, to neighboring cells. This propagation of force to the cell periphery and beyond is initiated in part on specifically localized cellular cortical actin filaments also involved in mechano-chemical transduction. During the contractile process itself and in response to extracellular structural and chemical alterations, the smooth muscle actin cytoskeletal remodels. This indicates that the cytoskeleton is a dynamic cellular organelle that adapts to the changes in cell shape and chemical cues.
  • 807
  • 13 May 2022
Topic Review
Extracellular Vesicles and Immune Function
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are cargo of proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids produced by eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells both under physiological and pathological conditions. They are found in virtually all body fluids such as plasma, saliva, amniotic fluid, and breast milk, suggesting key roles in immune development and function at different life stages from in utero to aging. Under inflammatory conditions, plasma EV levels are increased and exacerbate immune activation and inflammatory reaction. During infection, bacteria derived EVs can also affect host immunity as pathogenic bacteria derived EVs having pro-inflammatory effects.
  • 805
  • 30 Oct 2020
Topic Review
Pharmacology of CQ/HCQ and COVID-19
Chloroquine (CQ) and hydroxychloroquine (HCQ) have been proposed as treatments for COVID-19. These drugs have been studied for many decades, primarily in the context of their use as antimalarials, where they induce oxidative stress-killing of the malarial parasite. Less appreciated, however, is evidence showing that CQ/HCQ causes systemic oxidative stress. In vitro and observational data suggest that CQ/HCQ can be repurposed as potential antiviral medications.
  • 794
  • 01 Nov 2020
Topic Review
Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic Modeling of Nanoparticle Biodistribution
Cancer treatment and pharmaceutical development require targeted treatment and less toxic therapeutic intervention to achieve real progress against this disease. In this scenario, nanomedicine emerged as a reliable tool to improve drug pharmacokinetics and to translate to the clinical biologics based on large molecules. However, the ability of body to recognize foreign objects together with carrier transport heterogeneity derived from the combination of particle physical and chemical properties, payload and surface modification, make the designing of effective carriers very difficult. In this scenario, physiologically based pharmacokinetic modeling can help to design the particles and eventually predict their ability to reach the target and treat the tumor. This effort is performed by scientists with specific expertise and skills and familiarity with artificial intelligence tools such as advanced software that are not usually in the “cords” of traditional medical or material researchers. 
  • 792
  • 04 Nov 2022
Topic Review
O-GlcNAcylation Regulate Skeletal Muscle
O-GlcNAcylation is a highly dynamic, reversible and atypical glycosylation that regulates the activity, biological function, stability, sublocation and interaction of target proteins. O-GlcNAcylation receives and coordinates different signal inputs as an intracellular integrator similar to the nutrient sensor and stress receptor, which target multiple substrates with spatio-temporal analysis specifically to maintain cellular homeostasis and normal physiological functions.
  • 787
  • 13 Jun 2022
Topic Review
Assessment of Nanomaterials’ Hemotoxicity
The potential use of nanomaterials in medicine offers opportunities for novel therapeutic approaches to treating complex disorders. For that reason, a new branch of science, named nanotoxicology, which aims to study the dangerous effects of nanomaterials on human health and on the environment, has recently emerged. However, the toxicity and risk associated with nanomaterials are unclear or not completely understood. The development of an adequate experimental strategy for assessing the toxicity of nanomaterials may include a rapid/express method that will reliably, quickly, and cheaply make an initial assessment. One possibility is the characterization of the hemocompatibility of nanomaterials, which includes their hemolytic activity as a marker.
  • 785
  • 13 Dec 2022
Topic Review
TRPV1 Channel
The Transient Receptor Vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) or capsaicin receptor is a nonselective cation channel, which is abundantly expressed in nociceptors. This channel is a crucial transducer and molecular Integrator of several noxious stimuli, having a pivotal role in pain development. Several TRPV1 studies have focused on understanding its structure and function, as well as on the identification of compounds that regulate its activity. The intracellular roles of these channels have also been explored, highlighting TRPV1′s actions in the homeostasis of Ca2+ in organelles such as the mitochondria. These studies have evidenced how the activation of TRPV1 affects mitochondrial functions and how this organelle can regulate TRPV1-mediated nociception. The close relationship between this channel and mitochondria has been determined in neuronal and non-neuronal cells, demonstrating that TRPV1 activation strongly impacts on cell physiology.
  • 782
  • 17 Dec 2020
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