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Topic Review
Metal Ions as Signaling Agents
Metal ions can be involved in signaling processes within the cell in both physiological and pathological conditions. Magnesium and calcium are the most recognized signaling agents among metals. Zinc, copper, and iron can also play key roles in signaling pathways. There are many systems in which changes in intra- and extra-cellular zinc and copper concentrations have been linked to important downstream events, especially in nervous signal transduction. Iron signaling is mostly related with its homeostasis. However, it is also involved in a recently discovered type of programmed cell death, ferroptosis.
  • 2.4K
  • 06 Nov 2020
Topic Review
The Role of Polyploidy in the Human Body
Somatic polyploidy was found in the tissues of all multicellular organisms (including algae, mosses, lichens, vascular plants, invertebrates, and vertebrates), which points to its adaptive value. In human and warm-blooded animals, polyploidy can be a part of normal postnatal morphogenetic programs and can be a manifestation of response to pathological stimuli and diseases.
  • 2.4K
  • 11 Apr 2022
Topic Review
PGC-1α and Mitochondria
Mitochondria play a major role in ROS production and defense during their life cycle. The transcriptional activator PGC-1α is a key player in the homeostasis of energy metabolism and is therefore closely linked to mitochondrial function. PGC-1α responds to environmental and intracellular conditions and is regulated by SIRT1/3, TFAM, and AMPK, which are also important regulators of mitochondrial biogenesis and function.
  • 2.4K
  • 18 May 2023
Topic Review
MRNA Vaccine
An mRNA vaccine is a type of vaccine that uses a copy of a molecule called messenger RNA (mRNA) to produce an immune response. The vaccine delivers molecules of antigen-encoding mRNA into immune cells, which use the designed mRNA as a blueprint to build foreign protein that would normally be produced by a pathogen (such as a virus) or by a cancer cell. These protein molecules stimulate an adaptive immune response that teaches the body to identify and destroy the corresponding pathogen or cancer cells. The mRNA is delivered by a co-formulation of the RNA encapsulated in lipid nanoparticles that protect the RNA strands and help their absorption into the cells. File:MRNA vaccines against the coronavirus.webm Reactogenicity, the tendency of a vaccine to produce adverse reactions, is similar to that of conventional non-RNA vaccines. People susceptible to an autoimmune response may have an adverse reaction to messenger RNA vaccines. The advantages of mRNA vaccines over traditional vaccines are ease of design, speed and lower cost of production, the induction of both cellular and humoral immunity, and lack of interaction with the genomic DNA. While some messenger RNA vaccines, such as the Pfizer–BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine, have the disadvantage of requiring ultracold storage before distribution, other mRNA vaccines, such as the Moderna, CureVac, and Walvax COVID-19 vaccines, do not have such requirements. In RNA therapeutics, messenger RNA vaccines have attracted considerable interest as COVID-19 vaccines. In December 2020, Pfizer–BioNTech and Moderna obtained authorization for their mRNA-based COVID-19 vaccines. On 2 December, the UK Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA) became the first medicines regulator to approve an mRNA vaccine, authorizing the Pfizer–BioNTech vaccine for widespread use. On 11 December, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) issued an emergency use authorization for the Pfizer–BioNTech vaccine and a week later similarly authorized the Moderna vaccine.
  • 2.4K
  • 16 Nov 2022
Topic Review
STAT3
STAT3 is an important transcription factor that regulates cell growth and proliferation by regulating gene transcription of a plethora of genes.
  • 2.4K
  • 26 Aug 2021
Topic Review
Endocytic Pathways
Endocytosis is a shared process by which molecules, proteins, lipids, and liquids are sorted inside the cell via formation of intermediate vesicles. Vesicle formation occurs at the plasma membrane, where ligand receptors, binding proteins, and structural proteins are localized. After their internalization, the vesicles containing protein receptors or soluble molecules undergo a round of recycling, eventually leading to the fusion of the vesicle with an intracellular organelle. Such a process is an essential hallmark in all cell types—it regulates major cellular functions such as antigen presentation, intracellular signaling cascades, cell polarity, and synaptic transmission. Moreover, it is required to remove aged and dead cells from the body and is part of the defense against microbes. Given its importance, it is not surprising that even subtle perturbations affecting the endocytic machinery often impair cell function and cause several pathological conditions, such as cancer, and neurological and storage diseases. Finally, endocytosis represents an important cellular route for targeted drug-delivery in many diseases.
  • 2.4K
  • 15 Apr 2022
Topic Review
Cyclic Adenosine Monophosphate
Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP, cyclic AMP, or 3',5'-cyclic adenosine monophosphate) is a second messenger important in many biological processes. cAMP is a derivative of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and used for intracellular signal transduction in many different organisms, conveying the cAMP-dependent pathway.
  • 2.4K
  • 10 Nov 2022
Topic Review
CD4 T Helper Cells
CD4 T helper cells, including Th1, Th2, Th17, Treg and Tfh, play a central role in orchestrating adaptive immune responses.
  • 2.4K
  • 16 Nov 2020
Topic Review
Transglutaminase 2
Transglutaminase 2 (TG2) is a ubiquitously expressed enzyme catalyzing the crosslinking between Gln and Lys residues and involved in various pathophysiological events. Besides this crosslinking activity, TG2 functions as a deamidase, GTPase, isopeptidase, adapter/scaffold, protein disulfide isomerase, and kinase. It also plays a role in the regulation of hypusination and serotonylation.
  • 2.4K
  • 11 Aug 2021
Topic Review
Spondylocostal Dysostosis (SCDO)
Spondylocostal dysostosis (SCDO) is a rare heritable congenital condition, characterized by multiple severe malformations of the vertebrae and ribs.
  • 2.3K
  • 18 Mar 2021
Topic Review
Functional Aspects of Epidermal Barrier
The epidermis is a living, multilayered barrier with five functional levels, including a physical, a chemical, a microbial, a neuronal, and an immune level. 
  • 2.3K
  • 03 Nov 2021
Topic Review
L-Aspartate
L-aspartate (Asp) serves as a central building block, in addition to being a constituent of proteins, for many metabolic processes in most organisms, such as biosynthesis of other amino acids, nucleotides, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD), the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle and glycolysis pathway intermediates, and hormones, which are vital for growth and defense.
  • 2.3K
  • 16 Apr 2021
Topic Review
CXCL13 in Cancer and Other Diseases
C-X-C chemokine ligand 13 (CXCL13) and its receptor, CXCR5, make crucial contributions to this process by triggering intracellular signaling cascades in malignant cells and modulating the sophisticated TME in an autocrine or paracrine fashion. The CXCL13/CXCR5 axis has a dominant role in B cell recruitment and tertiary lymphoid structure formation, which activate immune responses against some tumors. In most cancer types, the CXCL13/CXCR5 axis mediates pro-neoplastic immune reactions by recruiting suppressive immune cells into tumor tissues. Tobacco smoke and haze (smohaze) and the carcinogen benzo(a)pyrene induce the secretion of CXCL13 by lung epithelial cells, which contributes to environmental lung carcinogenesis. 
  • 2.3K
  • 09 Dec 2021
Topic Review
The Sarcoplasmic Reticulum of Skeletal Muscle Cells
The sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) is a specialized form of the endoplasmic reticulum of muscle cells, dedicated to calcium ion (Ca2+) handling, necessary for muscle contraction and relaxation.
  • 2.3K
  • 31 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Ginseng against Respiratory Tract Infections
Ginseng has been reported to inhibit bacterial pathways, thereby killing bacteria indirectly. It has also been shown to protect the host from bacterial invasion.
  • 2.3K
  • 30 Sep 2021
Topic Review
The Oxytocin System in the Brain
Research on oxytocin (OT) was pioneered in the 1920s by German anatomist Ernst Scharrer, after he identified unusual, large-shaped “glandule-like” cells in the hypothalamus of fish. A full anatomical, morphological and functional assessment would follow in the next 50 years, complemented by the Nobel-prize awarded for the synthesis of OT to Vincent du Vigneaud in 1955.
  • 2.3K
  • 09 Dec 2022
Topic Review
In Vitro Maturation (IVM) of Human Oocyte
The clinical human oocyte IVM refers to in vitro maturation of the immature oocytes retrieved from follicles after no follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) or minimal FSH stimulation (usually 3 days' stimulation), followed by no human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG) or minimal hCG priming (single 10,000 IU injection).
  • 2.3K
  • 28 Dec 2021
Topic Review
Mitochondrial Transplantation in Mitochondrial Medicine
Mitochondria are cytoplasmic double-membrane organelles defined as eukaryotic cells’ powerhouses due to their involvement in the cellular bioenergetics. In particular, mitochondrial synthesis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is associated with the functionality of aerobic oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS). In addition to energy production, mitochondria play many critical roles in cellular function and signalling, including fatty acid biosynthesis, calcium homeostasis, reactive oxygen species production, cell survival, proliferation, apoptosis, autophagy, stem cell differentiation, and regulation of the immune response. 
  • 2.3K
  • 07 Feb 2023
Topic Review
Autophagy in Cancer Cell Death
Autophagy has important functions in maintaining energy metabolism under conditions of starvation and to alleviate stress by removal of damaged and potentially harmful cellular components. Therefore, autophagy represents a pro-survival stress response in the majority of cases. An alternative pro-death function of autophagy has been consistently observed in different settings, in particular, in developmental cell death of lower organisms and in drug-induced cancer cell death. This cell death is referred to as autophagic cell death (ACD) or autophagy-dependent cell death (ADCD), a type of cellular demise that may act as a backup cell death program in apoptosis-deficient tumors. 
  • 2.2K
  • 15 Jun 2022
Topic Review
Bile Acid Signaling
Bile acids are digestive agents synthesized in the liver and released into the gastrointestinal track during normal physiological conditions to aid in the emulsification of lipids and fat-soluble vitamins. These bile acids are highly regulated via enterohepatic circulation, a process which minimizes bile acid loss through a wide network of organs and bile acid transporters. Beyond this, bile acids and the activation of bile acid receptors has been observed in extrahepatic tissues, in particular the central nervous system. Certain bile acids, through the use of specific bile acid transporters, can also gain entry into the brain via the blood brain barrier. Furthermore, there has been an increase in recent literature highlighting bile acids and the presence of bile acid signaling in the brain and neural cells. This entry is a current overview of these topics.
  • 2.2K
  • 21 Aug 2020
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