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Topic Review
Brain Aging in Pets
Neuroinflammation is considered a highly preserved physiological defensive process, triggered by various insults that can reach the brain, aimed at restoring homeostasis. It allows the elimination of the underlying cause, repair injured tissue, and restore normal functions. However, under some circumstances, neuroinflammation can also have detrimental consequences.
  • 715
  • 18 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Radiotherapy Treatment Options in Management of Relapsing Glioblastoma
Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common and aggressive brain tumor in adults, with a median survival of about 15 months. After the prior treatment, GBM tends to relapse within the high dose radiation field, defined as the peritumoral brain zone (PTZ), needing a second treatment. 
  • 714
  • 20 Apr 2022
Topic Review
Brainstem Cholinergic Mechanisms Controlling Motor Activity
Locomotion is a basic motor act essential for survival. Amongst other things, it allows animals to move in their environment to seek food, escape predators, or seek mates for reproduction. The neural mechanisms involved in the control of locomotion have been examined in many vertebrate species and a clearer picture is progressively emerging. The basic muscle synergies responsible for propulsion are generated by neural networks located in the spinal cord. In turn, descending supraspinal inputs are responsible for starting, maintaining, and stopping locomotion as well as for steering and controlling speed. Several neurotransmitter systems play a crucial role in modulating the neural activity during locomotion.
  • 714
  • 23 Sep 2022
Topic Review
Targeting Microbiota as a Novel Therapeutic Strategy
Gut microbiota are extremely dynamic and can be modified by genetic and environmental factors, such as exercise, diet, stress, and contaminants. On the other hand, gut microbiota influence human health by regulating metabolism, host immune response, inflammatory machinery, and detoxification mechanisms. Because alteration of the gut microbiota can induce changes in brain activity a new avenue for potential therapeutic manipulation of the microbiome in neurodegenerative disorders such as Parkinson’s disease (PD) and Alzheimer’s disease (AD) has emerged. There are multiple gut microbiota interventions, including the administration of antibiotics, probiotics, prebiotics, or faecal microbiota transplantation (FMT).
  • 713
  • 23 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Rehabilitation Training after Spinal Cord Injury Affects Brain
Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a serious neurological insult that disrupts the ascending and descending neural pathways between the peripheral nerves and the brain, leading to not only functional deficits in the injured area and below the level of the lesion but also morphological, structural, and functional reorganization of the brain. These changes introduce new challenges and uncertainties into the treatment of SCI. Rehabilitation training, a clinical intervention designed to promote functional recovery after spinal cord and brain injuries, has been reported to promote activation and functional reorganization of the cerebral cortex through multiple physiological mechanisms.
  • 712
  • 10 Jan 2024
Topic Review
Psychiatric Partial Hospitalization Programs
The World Health Organization (WHO) developed a 7-year Mental Health Action Plan in 2013, which recommends integration of health and social care services into community-based settings, implementation of strategies for health promotion and prevention of illness, and support of research. In this entry, we highlight partial hospitalization programs (PHPs) for delusional disorder (DD), with a special focus on the health and psychosocial needs of women.
  • 711
  • 19 May 2021
Topic Review
CK1δ-peptides modulating metabolism of APP
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the major cause of dementia, and affected individuals suffer from severe cognitive, mental, and functional impairment. Histologically, AD brains are basically characterized by the presence of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles. Previous reports demonstrated that protein kinase CK1δ influences the metabolism of amyloid precursor protein (APP) by inducing the generation of amyloid-β (Aβ), finally contributing to the formation of amyloid plaques and neuronal cell death. CK1δ as a promising therapeutic target and suggested an innovative strategy for the treatment of AD based on peptide therapeutics specifically modulating the interaction between CK1δ and APP. Initially, CK1δ-derived peptides manipulating the interactions between CK1δ and APP695 were identified by interaction and phosphorylation analysis in vitro. Selected peptides subsequently proved their potential to penetrate cells without inducing cytotoxic effects. Finally, for at least two of the tested CK1δ-derived peptides, a reduction in Aβ levels and amyloid plaque formation could be successfully demonstrated in a complex cell culture model for AD. Consequently, the presented results provide new insights into the interactions of CK1δ and APP695 while also serving as a promising starting point for further development of novel and highly innovative pharmacological tools for the treatment of AD. 
  • 710
  • 25 Jun 2021
Topic Review
Lithium and hPOA Neurons
Lithium (Li+) salt is widely used as a therapeutic agent for treating neurological and psychiatric disorders. Despite its therapeutic effects on neurological and psychiatric disorders, it can also disturb the neuroendocrine axis in patients under lithium therapy. The hypothalamic area is involved in the physiological control of anterior pituitary hormones and the regulation of the neuroendocrine system. Li+ can modulate neuronal properties and a neurotransmitter system in various neuronal populations. However, the effect of Li+ on hypothalamic neuronal excitability has not been fully understood yet.
  • 708
  • 19 Apr 2021
Topic Review
Traumatic Brain Injuries Biomarkers in Sports-Related Context
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) affects 69 million people every year. One of the main limitations in managing TBI patients is the lack of univocal diagnostic criteria, including the absence of standardized assessment methods and guidelines. Immediacy and accuracy in diagnosis and management of TBIs are critically unmet medical needs. Especially in the context of sports-associated TBI, there is a strong need for prognostic indicators to help diagnose and identify at-risk subjects to avoid their returning to play while the brain is still highly vulnerable. Fluid biomarkers may emerge as new prognostic indicators to develop more accurate prediction models, improving risk stratification and clinical decision-making.
  • 706
  • 18 Apr 2023
Topic Review
Inositol’s Unproper Metabolism Impact on Neurodegenerative Process
One of the most common cyclitols found in eukaryotic cells - Myo-inositol (MI) and its derivatives play a key role in many cellular processes such as ion channel physiology, signal transduction, phosphate storage, cell wall formation, membrane biogenesis and osmoregulation.
  • 706
  • 05 May 2023
Topic Review
Neuronal Cytoskeleton in Intellectual Disability
Intellectual disability (ID) is a condition characterized by limited intellectual functioning and adaptive behaviors. It affects 1–3% of the worldwide population and no pharmacological therapies are currently available. Too many genes have been found mutated in ID patients suggesting that the genetic bases are highly heterogeneous and apparently unrelated. Bibliomic analysis reveals that ID genes converge onto a few biological modules, one of these being cytoskeleton dynamics and Rho GTPases transduction. Genetic variants exert their effects at different levels in a hierarchical arrangement, starting from the molecular level and moving toward higher levels of organization, i.e., cell compartment and functions, circuits, cognition, and behavior. Thus, cytoskeleton alterations which have an impact on cell processes such as neuronal migration, neuritogenesis, and synaptic plasticity, rebound on the overall establishment of an effective network and consequently on the cognitive phenotype. Systems biology approaches are more focused on the overall interconnected network rather than on individual genes, encouraging the design of therapies that aim to correct common dysregulated biological processes. This review summarizes current knowledge about cytoskeleton control in neurons and its relevance for the ID pathogenesis, exploiting in silico modeling and translating the implications of those findings to biomedical research.
  • 705
  • 18 Jun 2021
Topic Review
Circadian and Circannual Rhythms in Migraine
Migraine—a primary headache—has circadian and circannual rhythms in the onset of attacks. The circadian and circannual rhythms involve the hypothalamus, which is strongly associated with pain processing in migraines. Moreover, the role of melatonin in circadian rhythms has been implied in the pathophysiology of migraines.
  • 705
  • 03 Jul 2023
Topic Review
Targeting Microglia-Synapse Interactions
Synaptic plasticity refers to the capability of experience to modify neural circuit function and thereby influence thinking, feeling, and behavioral patterns.
  • 703
  • 28 Apr 2021
Topic Review
NLRP3, Insulin, and Alzheimer’s Disease
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most common form of neurodegenerative dementia. Metabolic disorders including obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) may stimulate amyloid β (Aβ) aggregate formation. Activation of the inflammasome complex, particularly NLRP3, has a crucial role in obesity-induced inflammation, insulin resistance, and T2DM. The abnormal activation of the NLRP3 signaling pathway influences neuroinflammatory processes. 
  • 703
  • 11 Oct 2021
Topic Review
Neuroanatomical Correlates of Anxiety Disorders
Developing an anxiety disorder can be the source of further cognitive, behavioral, and emotional struggles, impacting the quality of life of people experiencing such disorders and leading to a burden on health systems. Increased knowledge of the neurobiological events leading to the development of such disorders can be crucial for diagnostic procedures, as well as the selection and adaptation of therapeutic and preventive measures. Despite recent advances in this field, research is still at the initial steps when it comes to understanding the specific neurofunctional processes guiding these changes in the brains of people with an anxiety disorder. 
  • 703
  • 15 Apr 2024
Topic Review
GABAergic and Glycinergic Network
In the spinal cord, there are three types of inhibitory neurons and terminals: GABAergic, GABA/glycine coreleasing, and glycinergic. These neurons and terminals are arranged in the spinal cord neural circuit and are involved in many vital roles, such as regulating somatic sense, locomotive movement, and respiratory rhythms.
  • 702
  • 29 Jun 2022
Topic Review
Applications of Artificial Intelligence in Stroke and Epilepsy
Neurology is a quickly evolving specialty that requires clinicians to make precise and prompt diagnoses and clinical decisions based on the latest evidence-based medicine practices. In all Neurology subspecialties—Stroke and Epilepsy in particular—clinical decisions affecting patient outcomes depend on neurologists accurately assessing patient disability. Artificial intelligence [AI] can predict the expected neurological impairment from an AIS [Acute Ischemic Stroke], the possibility of ICH [IntraCranial Hemorrhage] expansion, and the clinical outcomes of comatose patients.
  • 702
  • 11 Mar 2024
Topic Review
Advances in Spinal Cord Stimulation
Neuromodulation, specifically spinal cord stimulation (SCS), has become a staple of chronic pain management for various conditions including failed back syndrome, chronic regional pain syndrome, refractory radiculopathy, and chronic post operative pain. Since its conceptualization, it has undergone several advances to increase safety and convenience for patients and implanting physicians. 
  • 699
  • 08 May 2023
Topic Review
ErbB Receptors
The activation of members of the Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor (EGFR) family (including ErbB) triggers pathways that have significant effects on cellular processes and have profound consequences both in physiological and pathological conditions. Within the nervous system, the neuregulin (NRG)/ErbB3 signaling plays a crucial role in promoting the formation and maturation of excitatory synapses. Noteworthy is ErbB3, which is actively involved in the process of cerebellar lamination and myelination. All members of the ErbB-family, in particular ErbB3, have been observed within the nuclei of various cell types, including both full-length receptors and alternative variants. 
  • 698
  • 03 Nov 2023
Topic Review
Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor as a Bipolar Disorder Biomarker
Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) plays a key role in brain development, contributing to neuronal survival and neuroplasticity. In fact, BDNF could be used as a marker for acute BD states and as a marker of clinical response to pharmacological treatments since the normalization of BDNF circulating levels has been found after effective pharmacological treatment. However, this interpretation remains speculative and further studies with larger and less heterogeneous samples are required.
  • 695
  • 23 Aug 2023
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