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Topic Review
Energy Metabolism and Glaucoma
Glaucoma, the leading cause of irreversible blindness, is a heterogeneous group of diseases characterized by progressive loss of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) and their axons and leads to visual loss and blindness. Risk factors for the onset and progression of glaucoma include systemic and ocular factors such as older age, lower ocular perfusion pressure, and intraocular pressure (IOP). Early signs of RGC damage comprise impairment of axonal transport, downregulation of specific genes and metabolic changes. The brain is often cited to be the highest energy-demanding tissue of the human body. The retina is estimated to have equally high demands. RGCs are particularly active in metabolism and vulnerable to energy insufficiency. Understanding the energy metabolism of the inner retina, especially of the RGCs, is pivotal for understanding glaucoma’s pathophysiology.
  • 1.4K
  • 22 Apr 2021
Topic Review
Sickle Cell Retinopathy
This work provides a complete review on sickle cell retinopathy (SCR), the most representative ophtalmologic complication of sickle cell disease (SCD), a hemoglobinopathy affecting both adults and children. It extensively relates the classification, epidemiology, clinical manifestations, risk factors, diagnosis, prevention and therapeutic options for SCR. It also highlights the need of a multidisciplinary theranostic approach.
  • 1.4K
  • 14 Dec 2020
Topic Review
Reis–Bücklers Corneal Dystrophy
Corneal dystrophies are a group of non-inflammatory inherited disorders of the cornea. Reis–Bücklers corneal dystrophy (RBCD) is a bilateral and autosomal dominant disease caused by a mutation in keratoepithilin, i.e., BIGH3, also known as transforming human growth factor (TGFBI), on chromosome 5q.
  • 1.4K
  • 12 Apr 2023
Topic Review
Central Serous Chorioretinopathy
Central serous chorioretinopathy (CSC) is a complex and not entirely understood retinal disease.
  • 1.4K
  • 22 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Advanced Drug Delivery for Treating Sjögren’s Dry Eye
Sjögren’s syndrome is a chronic and insidious autoimmune disease characterized by lymphocyte infiltration of exocrine glands. Patients typically present with dry eye (keratoconjunctivitis sicca), dry mouth (xerostomia), and other systemic manifestations. The current management for Sjögren's syndrome dry eye (SSDE) has been ineffective as it only targets ocular surface inflammation and dryness without addressing the specific disease process. Ophthalmologists often adopt a trial-and-error approach, which allows the cycle of dry eye disease (DED) to progress and potentially cause permanent damage to the lacrimal functional unit. Topical treatments also depend on patients' ability to administer eye drops and their compliance. These limitations emphasize the need for personalized, targeted treatments that address the underlying pathophysiology of SSDE. This article aims to present new advances in ocular drug delivery for more effective treatment.
  • 1.4K
  • 10 Feb 2023
Topic Review
Experimental Autoimmune Uveitis
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are produced by host phagocytes and play an important role in antimicrobial actions against various pathogens. Autoimmune uveitis causes blindness and severe visual impairment in humans at all ages worldwide. However, the role of ROS in autoimmune uveitis remains unclear. We used ROS-deficient (Ncf1-/-) mice to investigate the role of ROS in experimental autoimmune uveitis (EAU). Besides, we also used the antioxidant N-acetylcysteine treatment to evaluate the effect of suppression of ROS on EAU in mice. The EAU disease scores of Ncf1-/- mice were significantly lower than those of wild-type mice. EAU induction increased the levels of cytokines (IL-1α, IL-1β, IL-4, IL-6, IL-12, IL-17, and TNF-α) and chemokines (MCP-1) in the retinas of wild-type mice but not in those of Ncf1-/- mice. EAU induction enhanced the level of NF-κB activity in wild-type mice. However, the level of NF-κB activity in Ncf1-/- mice with EAU induction was low. Treatment with the antioxidant N-acetylcysteine also decreased the severity of EAU in mice with reduced levels of oxidative stress, inflammatory mediators, and NF-κB activation in the retina. We successfully revealed a novel role of ROS in the pathogenesis of EAU and suggest a potential antioxidant role for the treatment of autoimmune uveitis in the future.
  • 1.4K
  • 30 Oct 2020
Topic Review
Therapeutic Ophthalmic Lenses
The increase of public awareness on ocular conditions leads to an early diagnosis and treatment, as well as an increased demand for more effective and minimally invasive solutions for the treatment of both the anterior and posterior segments of the eye. Despite being the most common route of ophthalmic drug administration, eye drops are associated with compliance issues, drug wastage by lacrimation, and low bioavailability due to the ocular barriers. In order to overcome these problems, the design of drug-eluting ophthalmic lenses constitutes a non-invasive and patient-friendly approach for the sustained drug delivery to the eye. Several examples of therapeutic contact lenses and intraocular lenses have been developed, by means of different strategies of drug loading, leading to promising results. 
  • 1.4K
  • 12 Feb 2021
Topic Review
Neuroplasticity
Neuroplasticity can be defined as the ability of the nervous system to modify its structure on the basis of different environmental changes and stimulation.
  • 1.4K
  • 28 Oct 2021
Topic Review
Gene Therapy Approaches to Treat Retinitis Pigmentosa
Retinitis pigmentosa (RP) is a group of hereditary diseases that result in the progressive degeneration of the retina's photoreceptor cells, primarily starting with the rods. This gradual loss of vision is the most common form of inherited retinal dystrophy, and it imposes a significant burden on both individuals and society. RP is a leading cause of visual disability and blindness in people under 60, affecting more than 1.5 million individuals worldwide. The most common symptoms of RP include nyctalopia and gradual peripheral vision loss, which may ultimately lead to complete blindness.
  • 1.4K
  • 06 Jun 2023
Topic Review
Neurodegeneration in Diabetic Retinopathy
Diabetic retinopathy (DR) remains a critical global burden, with 103.12 million individuals affected and an estimated increase to 160.5 million by 2045. It represents a common and preventable complication of both type 1 and type 2 diabetes affecting the adult working population. Neurodegeneration is a critical element of diabetic retinopathy pathogenesis. The neuronal cells’ apoptosis contributes to microvascular impairment and blood–retinal barrier breakdown.
  • 1.4K
  • 03 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor in the Corneal Epithelium
It has been known for some time that the addition of epidermal growth factor (EGF) promotes the restoration of the corneal epithelium and patients using EGFR inhibitors as anti-cancer therapies are at increased risk of corneal erosions. However, the use of EGF in the clinic has been limited by downregulation of the receptor. More recent advances in EGFR signaling and trafficking in corneal epithelial cells have provided new insights in how to overcome receptor desensitization. 
  • 1.4K
  • 25 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Glaucoma Patients with Flammer Syndrome
Flammer syndrome (FS) describes a phenotype characterized by the presence of primary vascular dysregulation along with a number of symptoms and signs. Although most people with FS are healthy, FS favors the occurrence of certain diseases, such as normal tension glaucoma. This is because disturbed autoregulation makes the eye more sensitive to intraocular pressure (IOP) spikes or blood pressure drops. Treatment of FS is generally appropriate when patients either suffer greatly from their symptoms or if we can assume that it has contributed to a disease. In glaucoma, this may be the case if the glaucoma damage progresses despite well-controlled IOP. Both the still sparse scientific studies and our long clinical experience suggest that FS-targeted therapy not only relieves the symptoms of FS but also slows the progression of glaucoma damage in selected cases. This description is intended not only to help affected patients but to also motivate clinicians and researchers to conduct therapy studies to confirm or refute our observations. 
  • 1.3K
  • 08 Oct 2021
Topic Review
Pharmacological Treatment in Presbyopia
Pharmacological treatment of presbyopia may be an alternative for those who want a spectacle-free scenario and an easy-to-use method with lower risk of irreversible ocular adverse events. There are two main agents, miotics and lens softeners, investigated as agents for the pharmacological treatment. Miotic agents treat presbyopia by creating a pinhole effect which may increase the depth of focus at all working distances. Lens softeners increase the elasticity of the lens, which is targeted at one of the etiologic mechanisms of presbyopia. 
  • 1.3K
  • 14 Mar 2022
Topic Review Video
Toxic External Exposure Leading to Ocular Surface Injury
The surface of the eye is directly exposed to the external environment, protected only by a thin tear film, and may therefore be damaged by contact with ambient particulate matter, liquids, aerosols, or vapors. In the workplace or home, the eye is subject to accidental or incidental exposure to cleaning products and pesticides. Organic matter may enter the eye and cause infection. Ocular surface damage can trigger a range of symptoms such as itch, discharge, hyperemia, photophobia, blurred vision, and foreign body sensation. Toxin exposure can be assessed clinically in multiple ways, including via measurement of tear production, slit-lamp examination, corneal staining, and conjunctival staining. At the cellular level, environmental toxins can cause oxidative damage, apoptosis of corneal and conjunctival cells, cell senescence, and impaired motility. Outcomes range from transient and reversible with complete healing to severe and sight-compromising structural changes.
  • 1.3K
  • 13 Apr 2023
Topic Review
Glaucoma
Glaucoma is defined as a progressive loss of the innermost nerve cells of the retina, the retinal ganglion cells, with a simultaneous characteristic loss of the peripheral visual field. The underlying cause for glaucoma remains unclear and the condition has been recognized as multifactorial with a potential important systemic involvement.
  • 1.3K
  • 12 Feb 2021
Topic Review
Magnification of Iris in Ocular Prosthesis
The ocular prostheses, used for the prosthetic rehabilitation of ocular defects, are generally made from acrylic resin. As the thickness of clear acrylic over the iris is increased on the ocular prosthesis, the size of the iris is also increased, due to magnification through the clear resin.
  • 1.3K
  • 22 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Pathophysiology of Retinopathy of Prematurity
Retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) is a proliferative vascular ailment affecting the retina. It is the main risk factor for visual impairment and blindness in infants and young children worldwide. If left undiagnosed and untreated, it can progress to retinal detachment and severe visual impairment. Geographical variations in ROP epidemiology have emerged over recent decades, attributable to differing levels of care provided to preterm infants across countries and regions. 
  • 1.3K
  • 05 Feb 2024
Topic Review
Ocular Extra-Intestinal Manifestations in Adults Inflammatory Bowel Disease
Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), including Crohn’s disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC), is a chronic, inflammatory, polygenic, multifactorial, and multifactorial illness with unknown etiology. Studies have reported extraintestinal manifestations (EIMs) or issues in several organ systems, including musculoskeletal, dermatologic, ocular, pulmonary, renal, and hepatobiliary systems.
  • 1.3K
  • 15 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Posterior Capsule Opacification
Posterior capsule opacification (PCO) is the most common complication arising from the corrective surgery used to treat cataract patients. PCO arises when lens epithelial cells (LEC) residing in the capsular bag post-surgery undergo hyper-proliferation and transdifferentiation into myofibroblasts, migrating from the posterior capsule over the visual axis of the newly implanted intraocular lens (IOL). The developmental pathways underlying PCO are yet to be fully understood and the current literature is contradictory regarding the impact of the recognised risk factors of PCO. The aim of this review is firstly to collate the known biochemical pathways that lead to PCO development, providing an up-to-date chronological overview from surgery to established PCO formation. Secondly, the risk factors of PCO are evaluated, focussing on the impact of IOLs’ properties. Finally, the latest experimental model designs used in PCO research are discussed to demonstrate the ongoing development of clinical PCO models, the efficacy of newly developed IOL technology, and potential therapeutic interventions. This review will contribute to current PCO literature by presenting an updated overview of the known developmental pathways of PCO, an evaluation of the impact of the risk factors underlying its development, and the latest experimental models used to investigate PCO. Furthermore, the review should provide developmental routes for research into the investigation of potential therapeutic interventions and improvements in IOL design in the aid of preventing PCO for new and existing patients.
  • 1.3K
  • 11 Oct 2021
Topic Review
Gel-Based Materials
The most common route of administration of ophthalmic drugs is the topical route because it is convenient, non-invasive, and accessible to all patients. Unfortunately, drugs administered topically are not able to reach effective concentrations. Moreover, their bioavailability must be improved to decrease the frequency of administrations and their side effects, and to increase their therapeutic efficiency. For this purpose, in recent decades, particular attention has been given to the possibility of developing prolonged-release forms that are able to increase the precorneal residence time and decrease the loss of the drug due to tearing. Among these forms, gel-based materials have been studied as an ideal delivery system because they are an extremely versatile class with numerous prospective applications in ophthalmology. These materials are used in gel eye drops, in situ gelling formulations, intravitreal injections, and therapeutic contact lenses. 
  • 1.3K
  • 08 Sep 2021
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