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Topic Review
Alternative Splicing in Immunomodulatory Genes
The interaction between the tumor and immune cells within the tumor microenvironment is facilitated by signaling pathways driven by immunomodulatory proteins. Alternative splicing regulates the production of multiple immunomodulatory proteins with diverse functionality from a single mRNA transcript. Splicing factors are pivotal in modulating alternative splicing processes but are also subject to regulation. The dysregulation of alternative splicing may result from splicing factor (SF) abnormal expression levels and mutations in the cis and trans-acting elements and small nuclear RNA (snRNA) molecules. Aberrant splicing may generate abnormal mRNA transcripts encoding isoforms with altered functions that contribute to tumorigenesis or cancer progression.
  • 679
  • 30 Aug 2023
Topic Review
Repertoire for the Treatment of Malignant Melanoma
Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) have been used for the treatment of various types of cancers, including malignant melanoma. Mechanistic exploration of tumor immune responses is essential to improve the therapeutic efficacy of ICIs. Since tumor immune responses are based on antigen-specific immune responses, investigators have focused on T cell receptors (TCRs) and have analyzed changes in the TCR repertoire. The proliferation of T cell clones against tumor antigens is detected in patients who respond to treatment with ICIs. The proliferation of these T cell clones is observed within tumors as well as in the peripheral blood. Clonal proliferation has been detected not only in CD8-positive T cells but also in CD4-positive T cells, resident memory T cells, and B cells. Moreover, changes in the repertoire at an early stage of treatment seem to be useful for predicting the therapeutic efficacy of ICIs. Further analyses of the repertoire of immune cells are desirable to improve and predict the therapeutic efficacy of ICIs. 
  • 678
  • 10 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Pathogens, Diagnosis and Treatment of Chronic Granulomatous Disease
Chronic granulomatous disease (CGD) is a primary immunodeficiency caused by a defect in the phagocytic function of the innate immune system owing to mutations in genes encoding the five subunits of the nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphatase (NADPH) oxidase enzyme complex. The most common microorganisms observed in the patients with CGD are Staphylococcus aureus, Aspergillus spp., Candida spp., Nocardia spp., Burkholderia spp., Serratia spp., and Salmonella spp. Antibacterial prophylaxis with trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, antifungal prophylaxis usually with itraconazole, and interferon gamma immunotherapy have been successfully used in reducing infection in CGD. Haematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HCT) have been successfully proven to be the treatment of choice in patients with CGD.
  • 678
  • 07 Oct 2023
Topic Review
Immune Function and Cancer Correlation
Autoimmunity and cancer rates have both been on the rise in Western civilization leading many to question if there is a link between the two entities. Likewise, the association between immunodeficiency or induced immunodeficiency and malignancy has been at the forefront of medical research with particular interest in the transplanted patients, HIV patients and patients with autoimmune disease requiring chronic immunosuppression. 
  • 677
  • 28 Jan 2023
Topic Review
Natural Killer Cells in Brief
Natural Killer (NK) cells are innate immune cells that play a multifaceted role in immune surveillance, host defense, and immune regulation. This research explores the fascinating world of NK cells, encompassing their discovery, classification, mechanisms of recognition, activation, and effector functions. 
  • 677
  • 08 Oct 2023
Topic Review
Chimeric Antigen Receptor T Cell Therapy in AML
Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is a heterogeneous hematological malignancy that is often associated with relapse and drug resistance after standard chemotherapy or targeted therapy, particularly in older patients. Hematopoietic stem cell transplants are looked upon as the ultimate salvage option with curative intent. Adoptive cell therapy using chimeric antigen receptors (CAR) has shown promise in B cell malignancies and is being investigated in AML.
  • 677
  • 19 Jan 2024
Topic Review
Oncolytic Adenoviruses for Cancer Therapy
Human adenoviruses (hAds) are non-enveloped viruses with a diameter of 70 to 100 nm.
  • 674
  • 29 Apr 2021
Topic Review
T Cell Based Immunotherapy for Cancer
T cells are critical in destroying cancer cells by recognizing antigens presented by MHC molecules on cancer cells or antigen-presenting cells. Identifying and targeting cancer-specific or overexpressed self-antigens is essential for redirecting T cells against tumors, leading to tumor regression. This is achieved through the identification of mutated or overexpressed self-proteins in cancer cells, which guide the recognition of cancer cells by T-cell receptors. There are two main approaches to T cell-based immunotherapy: HLA-restricted and HLA-non-restricted Immunotherapy. 
  • 673
  • 25 Apr 2023
Topic Review
Immunotherapy through Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer
The landscape of non-small cell lung cancer has changed dramatically. This is largely due to the introduction of immunotherapy, and in particular, immune checkpoint blockade inhibitors. Anti-PD-1 immunotherapy is now standard treatment for patients with non-small cell lung cancer. However, not all patients respond to immunotherapy, and few patients achieve long-term survival. Moreover, some patients experience adverse effects from the treatment.
  • 673
  • 14 Jun 2023
Topic Review
Mast Cells against Fungal Host Defense
Mast cells take part in host defense against various microorganisms as they are numerous at the portal of infection, exert several essential mechanisms of pathogen destruction, and they express pattern recognition receptors. MCs can support immune responses to fungi and their specific constituents through initiated degranulation, synthesis and release of cytokines, chemokines, mediators, and generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), as well as immune cells' recruitment, phagocytosis, or formation of extracellular DNA traps. 
  • 672
  • 06 Dec 2021
Topic Review
Natural Polyphenols in Inflammatory Intestinal Diseases
The intestine is critically crucial for nutrient absorption and host defense against exogenous stimuli. Inflammation-related intestinal diseases, including enteritis, inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), and colorectal cancer (CRC), are heavy burdens for human beings due to their high incidence and devastating clinical symptoms. Studies have confirmed that inflammatory responses, along with oxidative stress and dysbiosis as critical pathogenesis, are involved in most intestinal diseases. Polyphenols are secondary metabolites derived from plants, which possess convincible anti-oxidative and anti-inflammatory properties, as well as regulation of intestinal microbiome, indicating the potential applications in enterocolitis and CRC.
  • 670
  • 24 Jul 2023
Topic Review
Exploitation of Neutrophil Functions to Combat Disease
Neutrophils are crucial innate immune cells and comprise 50–70% of the white blood cell population under homeostatic conditions. Upon infection and in cancer, blood neutrophil numbers significantly increase because of the secretion of various chemo- and cytokines by, e.g., leukocytes, pericytes, fibroblasts and endothelial cells present in the inflamed tissue or in the tumor microenvironment (TME). The function of neutrophils in cancer has recently gained considerable attention, as they can exert both pro- and anti-tumorigenic functions, dependent on the cytokine milieu present in the TME. Here, several promising therapeutic options are addressed, such as cytokine therapy, immunocytokines and immunotherapy, which aim to exploit the anti-tumorigenic potential of neutrophils in cancer treatment or block excessive neutrophil-mediated inflammation in autoimmune diseases.
  • 670
  • 16 Aug 2023
Topic Review
The Purinergic Landscape of Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer
Lung cancer (LC) is the most prevalent cancer worldwide, with an estimated 2.1 million new cases and 1.8 million related deaths annually. More than 70% of LC patients are diagnosed at an advanced stage, with a 5-year survival rate of less than 10%, whereas the survival rate for patients with early-stage disease ranges from 50 to 70%. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and adenosine are components of the tumor microenvironment (TME). Extracellular ATP (eATP) promotes tumor growth but also immune-mediated tumor eradication, mainly via the well-documented purinergic P2RX7 receptor. Adenosine, on the other hand, is generated from eATP via the ectonucleotidases CD39 and CD73 and is an immunosuppressant that acts at the A2A receptor (A2AR) level.
  • 665
  • 22 Apr 2022
Topic Review
Technologies Used to Discover Immune Cell Heterogeneity
During homeostasis, immune cells perform daily housekeeping functions to maintain heart health by acting as sentinels for tissue damage and foreign particles.
  • 664
  • 30 Dec 2021
Topic Review
Extracellular Vesicles in Allergic Airway Disease
Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have been reported as promising candidates for the treatment of various diseases, especially allergic diseases, as they have the capacity to differentiate into various cells. MSCs itself has several limitations such as risk of aneuploidy, difficulty in handling, immune rejection, tumorigenicity, so interest in the extracellular vesicles (EVs) released from MSCs is increasing and many studies have been reported. Previous studies have shown that extracellular vesicles (EVs) produced by MSCs is as effective as the MSCs themselves in suppression of allergic airway inflammation through the suppression of Th2 cytokine production and induction of regulatory T cells (Treg) expansion. EVs is one of the substances secreted by paracrine induction from MSCs, and because it exerts its effect by delivering contents such as mRNA, microRNA, and protein to the receptor cell, it can reduce the problems or risks related to stem cell therapy.
  • 664
  • 08 Dec 2022
Topic Review
KIR immunogenetics in BKV infection
BK virus (BKV) is a polyomavirus with high seroprevalence in the general population with an unremarkable clinical presentation in healthy people, but a potential for causing serious complications in immunosuppressed transplanted patients. Reactivation or primary infection in kidney allograft recipients may lead to allograft dysfunction and subsequent loss. Currently, there is no widely accepted specific treatment for BKV infection and reduction of immunosuppressive therapy is the mainstay therapy. Given this and the sequential appearance of viruria-viremia-nephropathy, screening and early detection are of utmost importance. 
  • 658
  • 29 Dec 2020
Topic Review
T Cells in Cancer
T cells play a key role in tumour surveillance, both identifying and eliminating transformed cells.
  • 657
  • 06 Apr 2021
Topic Review
Molecular Analysis of Melanoma Insensitivity
Melanomas are diagnosed at various stages of the disease and in different anatomical positions, which makes it rather difficult to determine and choose the appropriate treatment options. The identification of biomarkers may present clinicians with the ability to determine which treatments will be successful and which may fail due to the development of resistance. One such biomarker informing clinicians what ICI not to use to treat patients is lymphocyte activation gene 3 (LAG-3), a molecule expressed on the surface of and affecting the functionality of regulatory T cells (Tregs).
  • 657
  • 29 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Immunogenic Cell Death Role in Urothelial Cancer Therapy
Bladder cancer is the 13th most common cause of cancer death with the highest lifetime cost for treatment of all cancers. The role of a novel therapeutic approach called immunogenic cell death (ICD) in urothelial cancer of the bladder is clarified.
  • 656
  • 29 Sep 2022
Topic Review
Mitochondrial Impairment in the Cardiorenal Syndrome Type 4
Cardiorenal syndrome type 4 (CRS type 4) occurs when chronic kidney disease (CKD) leads to cardiovascular damage, resulting in high morbidity and mortality rates. Mitochondria, vital organelles responsible for essential cellular functions, can become dysfunctional in CKD. This dysfunction can trigger inflammatory responses in distant organs by releasing Damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs). These DAMPs are recognized by immune receptors within cells, including Toll-like receptors (TLR) like TLR2, TLR4, and TLR9, the nucleotide-binding domain, leucine-rich-containing family pyrin domain-containing-3 (NLRP3) inflammasome, and the cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP)–adenosine monophosphate (AMP) synthase (cGAS)–stimulator of interferon genes (cGAS-STING) pathway. Activation of these immune receptors leads to the increased expression of cytokines and chemokines. Excessive chemokine stimulation results in the recruitment of inflammatory cells into tissues, causing chronic damage. Experimental studies have demonstrated that chemokines are upregulated in the heart during CKD, contributing to CRS type 4. 
  • 656
  • 19 Jan 2024
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