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Topic Review
MicroRNA-Target Interaction Regulatory Network
Alzheimer’s Disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder and the most common cause of dementia; however, early diagnosis of the disease is challenging. Research suggests that biomarkers found in blood, such as microRNAs (miRNA), may be promising for AD diagnostics. Experimental data on miRNA–target interactions (MTI) associated with AD are scattered across databases and publications, thus making the identification of promising miRNA biomarkers for AD difficult. In response to this, a list of experimentally validated AD-associated MTIs was obtained from miRTarBase. Cytoscape was used to create a visual MTI network. STRING software was used for protein–protein interaction analysis and mirPath was used for pathway enrichment analysis. Several targets regulated by multiple miRNAs were identified, including: BACE1, APP, NCSTN, SP1, SIRT1, and PTEN. The miRNA with the highest numbers of interactions in the network were: miR-9, miR-16, miR-34a, miR-106a, miR-107, miR-125b, miR-146, and miR-181c. The analysis revealed seven subnetworks, representing disease modules which have a potential for further biomarker development. The obtained MTI network is not yet complete, and additional studies are needed for the comprehensive understanding of the AD-associated miRNA targetome. 
  • 844
  • 08 Dec 2021
Topic Review
Spatial Olfactory Memory and Spatial Olfactory Navigation
Many studies have focused on navigation, spatial skills, and the olfactory system in comparative models, including those concerning the relationship between them and physical activity.
  • 844
  • 13 Feb 2023
Topic Review
Diagnosis of NREM Sleep Parasomnias
Non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep parasomnias mainly include confusional arousals (CA), sleep terrors (ST), and sleepwalking (SW), three clinical entities lumped together under the name of disorders of arousal (DoA).
  • 844
  • 05 May 2023
Topic Review
Niemann–Pick Disease Type C1
Niemann–Pick disease type C1 (NPC1), which is a rare lipid-storage disorder. Lipids, in particular phospholipids, are a major component of the cell membrane and play important roles in cellular functions, such as extracellular receptor signaling, intracellular second messengers and cellular pressure regulation.
  • 843
  • 20 Dec 2021
Topic Review
Melatonin in the Treatment of Clinical Perinatal Asphyxia
Melatonin is synthesized from serotonin, which, in turn, is synthesized from the amino acid tryptophan. In the pineal gland, tryptophan is taken from the blood and hydroxylated to 5-hydroxytryptophan, which is then decarboxylated to serotonin. Key functions of melatonin include regulating circadian patterns, such as fluctuations in body temperature and sleep–wake cycles, seasonal reproduction, boosting the immune system and regulating glucose levels. Melatonin has several hormonal functions, but this unique substance also has paracrine and autocrine effects and exhibits antioxidant and free radical scavenger properties.
  • 843
  • 09 Feb 2023
Topic Review
Neurophysiology in Managing Patients with Chiari Malformations
Chiari malformation type 1 (CM1) includes various congenital anomalies that share ectopia of the cerebellar tonsils lower than the foramen magnum, in some cases associated with syringomyelia or hydrocephalus. CM1 can cause dysfunction of the brainstem, spinal cord, and cranial nerves. This functional alteration of the nervous system can be detected by various modalities of neurophysiological tests, such as brainstem auditory evoked potentials, somatosensory evoked potentials, motor evoked potentials, electromyography and nerve conduction studies of the cranial nerves and spinal roots, as well as brainstem reflexes.
  • 843
  • 23 Oct 2023
Topic Review
Post-Stroke Psychiatric and Cognitive Symptoms
Stroke survivors in developing countries have been documented to be marked with intransigent and debilitating disabilities. To combat these dire circumstances, the World Health Organization (WHO) launched ‘Rehabilitation 2030′, which aspires to “scale up rehabilitation so that countries can be prepared to address the evolving needs of populations up to 2030” (p. 12). Owing to the suboptimal emergency services, critical care and existing rehabilitation services for individuals sustaining strokes in a majority of developing countries, stroke survivors have shown high mortality as well as disability and dependency rates. Cerebral hypoperfusion among stroke survivors (whether triggered by ischemic or hemorrhagic events, coupled with arrhythmias, myocardial infarction, pulmonary embolism, pericardial effusion, or bleeding) leads to structural and functional changes in the brain resulting from damage. Around 85% of strokes are classified as ischemic and 12% as hemorrhagic. Approximately 75% of stroke survivors experience physical disability, emotional symptoms and cognitive symptoms, or a combination of these.
  • 842
  • 27 Aug 2021
Topic Review
Blood-Based Biomarkers in Mild Traumatic Brain Injury
It is estimated that 90% of brain injuries fall into the category of mild traumatic brain injury (TBI). Mild TBI and concussion can have heterogeneous symptoms and serious consequences that develop over time with unpredictable levels of recovery. The diagnosis may not be made for multiple reasons, including due to patient hesitancy to undergo neuroimaging and inability of imaging to detect minimal damage. Biomarkers of nerve damage measured in blood plasma are increasingly promising as the sensitivity and accuracy of quantification improves. These biomarkers could fill the gap, making detection, diagnosis and prognosis easier and more precise, but the time needed to send blood to a laboratory for analysis made this impractical until point-of-care measurement became available. A handheld blood test is now on the market for diagnosis of concussion based on the specific blood biomarkers glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) and ubiquitin carboxyl terminal hydrolase L1 (UCH-L1). Other blood biomarker assays are in development. 
  • 841
  • 14 Nov 2023
Topic Review
Cytomegalovirus and Glioblastoma
Glioblastoma is the most common and aggressive malignancy in the adult central nervous system. Cytomegalovirus (CMV) plays a crucial role in the pathogenesis and treatment of glioblastoma.
  • 841
  • 14 Sep 2022
Topic Review
HDAC&HAT after Cerebral Ischemia
The transcription factors and signaling proteins that play an important role in brain cell responses to ischemia undergo acetylation/deacetylation. In different cell types, the acetylation/deacetylation of different regions of non-histone proteins containing lysines occurs and HAT/HDAC activity depends on the acetylation site. Moreover, the activity of the HDACs themselves can be regulated by their acetylation/deacetylation.
  • 840
  • 19 Aug 2021
Topic Review
Application of Proteomics in Optic Nerve Injury Diseases
Optic nerve damage is a common cause of blindness. Optic nerve injury is often accompanied by fundus vascular disease, retinal ganglion cell apoptosis, and changes in retinal thickness. These changes can cause alterations in protein expression within neurons in the retina. Proteomics analysis offers conclusive evidence to decode a biological system. Optic nerve damage can significantly reduce the vision of patients, thereby having a serious impact on their daily lives and their families. In clinical practice, optic nerve injury is mainly diagnosed by optical tomography (OCT) detection and by fundus angiography. 
  • 840
  • 12 Apr 2023
Topic Review
Economic Recessions and Mental Health
In the wake of a global economic recession secondary to the COVID-19 pandemic, this entry seeks to summarize the current quantitative research on the impact of economic recessions on depression, anxiety, traumatic disorders, self-harm, and suicide. 
  • 839
  • 09 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Neurodegenerative Disorders and Sphingolipids
Sphingolipids are an important class of lipids that comprise a fatty acid that is attached to a sphingoid long-chain base. An increasing amount of evidence links these sphingolipids to neurodegenerative disorders.  
  • 839
  • 19 Nov 2021
Topic Review Peer Reviewed
Consciousness: A Strategy for Behavioral Decisions
Most multicellular animals have a nervous system that is based on the following three components: (1) sensory cells gather information and send it to processing units; (2) the processing units use the information to decide what action to take; and (3) effector neurons activate the appropriate muscles. Due to the importance of making the right decisions, evolution made profound advances in processing units. I review present knowledge regarding the evolution of neurological tools for making decisions, here referred to as strategies or algorithms. Consciousness can be understood as a particularly sophisticated strategy. It may have evolved to allow for the use of feelings as a ‘common currency’ to evaluate behavioral options. The advanced cognitive capacity of species such as humans further improved the usefulness of consciousness, yet in biological terms, it does not seem to be an optimal, fitness-enhancing strategy. A model for the gradual evolution of consciousness is presented. There is a somewhat arbitrary cutoff as to which animals have consciousness, but based on current information, it seems reasonable to restrict the term to amniotes.
  • 837
  • 11 Jan 2023
Topic Review
Stroke and Etiopathogenesis
Stroke is defined as a lack of blood flow in the brain that can cause neurological deficits. The major cause of ischemic stroke is arterial atherosclerosis. Other cause of stroke is genetic etiology and about 15% of strokes are observed in people aged 18–49 years old. Monogenic and polygenic disorders represent about 7% and 38%, respectively, of all stroke causes.
  • 834
  • 30 Jun 2022
Topic Review
Epidemiology and Genetics of Mitochondrial Myopathies
Mitochondrial myopathies represent a heterogeneous group of diseases caused mainly by genetic mutations to proteins that are related to mitochondrial oxidative metabolism. The International Workshop of Experts in Mitochondrial Diseases defined mitochondrial myopathies as a group of progressive muscle conditions, primarily caused by the impairment of oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS).
  • 833
  • 11 Jan 2023
Topic Review
PI3K/AKT/GSK3 Pathway Involved in Psychiatric Illnesses
Psychiatric illnesses may be qualified to the cellular impairments of the function for survival or death in neurons, which may consequently appear as abnormalities in the neuroplasticity. The molecular mechanism has not been well understood, however, it seems that PI3K, AKT, GSK3, and their downstream molecules have crucial roles in the pathogenesis. Through transducing cell surviving signal, the PI3K/AKT/GSK3 pathway may organize an intracellular central network for the action of the synaptic neuroplasticity. In addition, the pathways may also regulate cell proliferation, cell migration, and apoptosis. Several lines of evidence have supported a role for this signaling network underlying the development and treatment for psychiatric illnesses.
  • 833
  • 11 Oct 2023
Topic Review
Patients with Alzheimer’s Disease
Neuroinflammation is a common feature in Alzheimer’s (AD) and Parkinson’s (PD) disease. In the last few decades, a testable hypothesis was proposed that protein-unfolding events might occur due to neuroinflammatory cascades involving alterations in the crosstalk between glial cells and neurons. Here, we tried to clarify the pattern of two of the most promising biomarkers of neuroinflammation in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in AD and PD. This study included cognitively unimpaired elderly patients, patients with mild cognitive impairment, patients with AD dementia, and patients with PD. CSF samples were analyzed for YKL-40 and C-reactive protein (CRP). We found that CSF YKL-40 levels were significantly increased only in dementia stages of AD. Additionally, increased YKL-40 levels were found in the cerebral orbitofrontal cortex from AD patients in agreement with augmented astrogliosis. Our study confirms that these biomarkers of neuroinflammation are differently detected in CSF from AD and PD patients. 
  • 831
  • 04 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Molecular Pathways Involved in LRRK2-Linked Parkinson’s Disease
Parkinson’s disease is one of the most common neurodegenerative diseases affecting the ageing population. Studies have found that mutations in Leucine-rich-repeat-kinase 2 (LRRK2) are the most common cause of familial Parkinson’s disease (PD). Moreover, aberrant (higher) LRRK2 kinase activity has an influence in idiopathic PD as well. 
  • 831
  • 24 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Neuropathies in IEMs
Neuropathies are all conditions in which damage to a peripheral nerve causes different symptoms depending on its function.  The most common symptom is usually ice-burn-like neuropathic pain. In some cases neuropathies in children and adolescents can be caused by inborn errors of metabolism (IEMs), with manifestations including developmental delay or regression, seizures,as well as muscle spasticity or hypotonia. 
  • 830
  • 08 Nov 2021
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