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Topic Review
Feeding Problems in Preterm Infants
Preterm infants have long-term healthcare needs. Oral feeding competency in preterm infants is deemed an essential requirement for hospital discharge. Despite achieving discharge readiness, feeding problems persist into childhood and can have a residual impact into adulthood. The early diagnosis and management of feeding problems are essential requisites to mitigate any potential long-term challenges in preterm-born adults.
  • 786
  • 12 Jan 2022
Topic Review
Acute Myeloid Leukemia (AML)
Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is a malignant, hematologic disease that accounts for about one-fifth of all childhood leukemia cases.
  • 781
  • 13 May 2021
Topic Review
Pharmacokinetic of Antibiotics in Preterms
Antibiotics are widely prescribed and administered in preterm neonates. Almost 61.3% of neonates admitted into neonatal intensive care units receive an antibiotic course during hospitalization. Nevertheless, most antibiotics were not investigated in neonatal pharmacokinetic (PK) studies before licensing and, therefore, are used off label. Both population pharmacokinetic (popPK) and  pharmacokinetic (PBPK) models have been developed so far to predict PK behavior and to tailor the dosing regimens of several antibiotics in neonates including preterms.
  • 780
  • 02 Sep 2022
Topic Review
Zinc Nutritional Status in Patients with Cystic Fibrosis
Zinc is an essential nutrient for all forms of life and its deficiency affects the normal growth and development of human beings. Zinc deficiency can be both inherited and acquired. Although severe zinc deficiency is extremely uncommon in European populations, marginal deficiency may be much more prevalent and is associated with immune system dysfunction and restricted physical development. Serum zinc concentration (SZC)  was associated with the nutritional status, expressed as BMI (Body Mass Index) and weight-for-height score, and dietary zinc intake with energy intake and weight-for-height score. No patient with hypozincemia had dietary zinc deficiency. 
  • 780
  • 19 Jan 2023
Topic Review
Treatment of Galactosemia
Galactosemia is an inborn disorder of carbohydrate metabolism characterized by the inability to metabolize galactose, a sugar contained in milk (the main source of nourishment for infants), and convert it into glucose, the sugar used by the body as the primary source of energy. Galactosemia is an autosomal recessive genetic disease that can be diagnosed at birth, even in the absence of symptoms, with newborn screening by assessing the level of galactose and the GALT enzyme activity, as GALT defect constitutes the most frequent cause of galactosemia. Currently, galactosemia cannot be cured, but only treated by means of a diet with a reduced content of galactose and lactose. Although the diet is able to reverse the neonatal clinical picture, it does not prevent the development of long-term complications. 
  • 779
  • 29 Jul 2022
Topic Review
Pharmacokinetics of Antibiotics in Pediatric Intensive Care
Children show important developmental and maturational changes, which may contribute greatly to pharmacokinetic (PK) variability observed in pediatric patients. These PK alterations are further enhanced by disease-related, non-maturational factors. Specific to the intensive care setting, such factors include critical illness, inflammatory status, augmented renal clearance (ARC), as well as therapeutic interventions (e.g., extracorporeal organ support systems or whole body hypothermia [WBH]). This entry illustrates the relevance of both maturational and non-maturational changes in absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion (ADME) applied to antibiotics.
  • 776
  • 09 Dec 2021
Topic Review
Shaken Baby Syndrome
In the context of child abuse spectrum, abusive head trauma (AHT) represents the leading cause of fatal head injuries in children less than 2 years of age. Immature brain is characterized by high water content, partially myelinated neurons, and prominent subarachnoid space, thus being susceptible of devastating damage as consequence of acceleration–deceleration and rotational forces developed by violent shaking mechanism. Diagnosis of AHT is not straightforward and represents a medical, forensic, and social challenge, based on a multidisciplinary approach. Beside a detailed anamnesis, neuroimaging is essential to identify signs suggestive of AHT, often in absence of external detectable lesions. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) represents the radiation-free modality of choice to investigate the most typical findings in AHT, such as subdural hematoma, retinal hemorrhage, and hypoxic-ischemic damage and it also allows to detect more subtle signs as parenchymal lacerations, cranio-cervical junction, and spinal injuries.
  • 775
  • 23 Feb 2021
Topic Review
Ehlers–Danlos Syndrome
Ehlers-Danlos syndromes (EDS) are a group of connective tissue disorders which manifest with hyperextensibility of joints and skin, and general tissue fragility. While not a major criterion for clinical diagnosis, pain is a frequently endorsed symptom across subtypes of EDS. Similarly, in painful conditions, quality of life is known to be diminished. As such, EDS and related diagnostic heterogeneity is reviewed, and quality of life correlates of pain in pediatric samples are discussed. 
  • 763
  • 29 Sep 2020
Topic Review
Perimenstrual Asthma in Adolescents
Asthma is a frequent medical condition in adolescence. The worsening of the most common symptoms perimenstrually is defined as perimenstrual asthma (PMA). The cause of PMA remains unclear, but a role for hormonal milieu is plausible. Data on PMA in adolescents are limited, and its management is not fully established. The fluctuation of estrogens at ovulation and before menstruation and the progesterone secretion during the luteal phase and its subsequent withdrawal seem to be the culprits, because the deterioration of asthma is cyclical during the luteal phase and/or during the first days of the menstrual cycle.
  • 761
  • 10 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Neurodevelopmental Consequences of Pediatric Cancer
Cognitive impairment is frequent in pediatric cancer, and behavioral and psychological disturbances often also affect children who have survived cancer problems. Furthermore, pediatric tumors are also often associated with sleep disorders. 
  • 752
  • 23 Jun 2021
Topic Review
Nutrition on Linear Growth
Linear growth is a complex process and is considered one of the best indicators of children’s well-being and health. Genetics, epigenetics and environment (mainly stress and availability of nutrients) are the main regulators of growth. Nutrition exerts its effects on growth throughout the course of life with different, not completely understood mechanisms. 
  • 752
  • 12 May 2022
Topic Review
Post-Intensive Care Syndrome in Pediatrics
Post-intensive care syndrome in pediatrics (PICs-P) means that survivors of pediatric critical illness may experience a constellation of physical, emotional, cognitive, and social impairments. The spectrum of PICs-P manifestations within each domain are heterogeneous. This is attributed to the wide age and developmental diversity of children admitted to PICUs and the high prevalence of chronic complex conditions. PICs-P recovery follows variable trajectories based on numerous patient, family, and environmental factors. Those who improve tend to do so within less than a year of discharge. A small proportion, however, may actually worsen over time. There are many gaps in our current understanding of PICs-P. A unified approach to screening, preventing, and treating PICs-P-related morbidity has been hindered by disparate research methodology.
  • 747
  • 17 May 2021
Topic Review
Extracellular Vesicle-microRNAs as Diagnostic Biomarkers in Preterm Neonates
Neonates born prematurely (<37 weeks of gestation) are at a significantly increased risk of developing inflammatory conditions associated with high mortality rates, including necrotizing enterocolitis, bronchopulmonary dysplasia, and hypoxic-ischemic brain damage.
  • 741
  • 15 Feb 2023
Topic Review
Lipid*omic*s in Rare Diseases
Lipids are defined as hydrophobic or amphipathic small molecules with a high solubility in organic solvents. Following water, lipids are the second most abundant components in mammalian cells. The lipidome comprises tens of thousands of different species, which are broadly subdivided into simple lipids, e.g., fatty acids (FA), or complex lipids, e.g. sphingolipids (SL), acylglycerols or phospholipids (PL). Lipids are crucial for structural compartmentalization by being major constituents of the semi-permeable plasma membranes formed by a lipid bilayer, majorly composed of PL and proteins.  Lipidomic changes in rare and undiagnosed diseases are often minor, consisting of complex patterns of subtle changes of a distinct set of lipids, which can be easily identified by lipidomics analysis.
  • 735
  • 12 May 2023
Topic Review
Child and Adolescent Obesity
Child and adolescent obesity constitute one of the greatest contemporary public health menaces. The enduring disproportion between calorie intake and energy consumption, determined by a complex interaction of genetic, epigenetic, and environmental factors, finally leads to the development of overweight and obesity. Child and adolescent overweight/obesity promotes smoldering systemic inflammation (“para-inflammation”) and increases the likelihood of later metabolic and cardiovascular complications, including metabolic syndrome and its components, which progressively deteriorate during adulthood. Exosomes are endosome-derived extracellular vesicles that are secreted by a variety of cells, are naturally taken-up by target cells, and may be involved in many physiological and pathological processes. Over the last decade, intensive research has been conducted regarding the special role of exosomes and the non-coding (nc) RNAs they contain (primarily micro (mi) RNAs, long (l) non-coding RNAs, messenger (m) RNAs and other molecules) in inter-cellular communications. Through their action as communication mediators, exosomes may contribute to the pathogenesis of obesity and associated disorders. There is increasing evidence that exosomal miRNAs and lncRNAs are involved in pivotal processes of adipocyte biology and that, possibly, play important roles in gene regulation linked to human obesity. 
  • 734
  • 14 Apr 2021
Topic Review
Eating Patterns in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is one of the most common neurodevelopmental disorders in childhood, affecting ~7% of children and adolescents worlwide. Case-control studies have shown that dietary patterns may influence the risk of ADHD. Non-healthy dietary patterns have been positively associated with this pathology, while healthy dietary patterns have been negatively associated.
  • 733
  • 01 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Impact of Air Pollution on Children
Air pollution is an unseen threat to children’s health because it may increase the risk of respiratory infection, atopy, and asthma, and also alter gut microbiota compositions. Air pollution may affect children’s health directly through the neurodevelopmental, immune, and cardiometabolic pathways. However, the available evidence is still insufficient to conclude the relationship between air pollution and the gut microbiota. It is important to gather everything in order to understand the current existing evidence, and the gap needed to be filled.
  • 725
  • 01 Jun 2022
Topic Review
Primary Carnitine Deficiency Newborn Screening
Primary Carnitine Deficiency (PCD) is a fatty acid oxidation disorder that will be included in the expansion of the French newborn screening (NBS) program at the beginning of 2023.
  • 721
  • 15 Feb 2023
Topic Review
Pediatric Brain Tumors
Central nervous system tumors are the most common pediatric solid tumors; they are also the most lethal. Unlike adults, childhood brain tumors are mostly primary in origin and differ in type, location and molecular signature. Tumor characteristics (incidence, location, and type) vary with age. Pediatric brain tumors are the most common solid tumors in children. Traditionally classified by location, age at presentation, and histological type, advances in molecular biology and genetics have allowed for more refined subgrouping within major tumor types.
  • 721
  • 31 Aug 2022
Topic Review
Impact of Oxidative Stress on Pediatrics Syndromes
Oxidative stress is a condition determined by an imbalance between antioxidant and oxidative factors. Oxidative stress can have serious consequences on our organism. Indeed, it causes both necrosis and cell apoptosis, determining cellular aging, increased carcinogenesis, vascular stiffening, increased autoimmune diseases, and muscle decay. 
  • 720
  • 01 Nov 2022
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