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Topic Review Peer Reviewed
COVID-19-Associated Encephalopathy (COVEP): Basic Aspects of Neuropathology
SARS-CoV-2, a member of the betacoronavirus group and causative agent of COVID-19, is a virus affecting multiple systems, not only the respiratory. One of the systems affected by the virus is the central nervous system, with neuropathological studies reporting a wide set of morphological phenomena—neuroinflammation, vascular and blood-brain barrier alterations, neurodegeneration, and accelerated aging, while contradicting data is present on the direct neuroinvasive potential of the virus and active viral replication within neurons. The depicted changes, other than an acute effect (which may contribute to the death of the patient) also have chronic sequelae in the context of post-COVID syndrome cognitive impediments, sleep, and mood disorders. The following chapter describe the basic neuropathological aspects of SARS-CoV-2 as based on the present evidence in scientific literature and propose the term COVEP—COVID-associated encephalopathy—to unite the undisputed effects of the infection on nervous system morphology and function.
  • 3.1K
  • 28 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Three Bodies Doctrine (Vedanta)
According to Sarira Traya, the Doctrine of the Three bodies in Hinduism, the human being is composed of three sariras or "bodies" emanating from Brahman by avidya, "ignorance" or "nescience". They are often equated with the five koshas (sheaths), which cover the atman. The Three Bodies Doctrine is an essential doctrine in Indian philosophy and religion, especially Yoga, Advaita Vedanta and Tantra.
  • 3.1K
  • 23 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Planet-Hosting Stars
Planet-hosting stars are stars which host planets, therefore forming planetary systems. This article describes the correlations between stars' characteristics and the characteristics of the planets that orbit them, and other connections between stars and their planets.
  • 3.1K
  • 23 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Hybrid Prognostic Approaches of Aircraft Systems and Components
Prognostic and health management (PHM) plays a vital role in ensuring the safety and reliability of aircraft systems. The process entails the proactive surveillance and evaluation of the state and functional effectiveness of crucial subsystems. The principal aim of PHM is to predict the remaining useful life (RUL) of subsystems and proactively mitigate future breakdowns in order to minimize consequences. The achievement of this objective is helped by employing predictive modeling techniques and doing real-time data analysis. The incorporation of prognostic methodologies is of utmost importance in the execution of condition-based maintenance (CBM), a strategic approach that emphasizes the prioritization of repairing components that have experienced quantifiable damage. Multiple methodologies are employed to support the advancement of prognostics for aviation systems, encompassing physics-based modeling, data-driven techniques, and hybrid prognosis. 
  • 3.1K
  • 10 Oct 2023
Topic Review
Unbiased Expectation Theory
Unbiased expectation theory (UET), which posits that long-term interest rates are determined by the market’s expectations of future short-term interest rates, is a fundamental concept in the field of fixed-income securities. According to the expectation hypothesis, forward interest rates should be unbiased estimates of expected future spot interest rates.
  • 3.1K
  • 09 Jan 2024
Topic Review Peer Reviewed
Gaming for the Education of Biology in High Schools
Game-based learning refers to an educational approach where games (digital or analogue) are used in order to engage students in interactive and immersive experiences designed to teach specific concepts, skills or subjects. Gamification refers to the application of game design elements, such as point systems, rewards, narratives, and competition, to non-game contexts. Game elements, mechanics and structures, when incorporated into the learning process, can enhance student understanding and increase engagement, motivation and retention of educational content. Teaching Biology can present challenges mainly due to the complexity of the subject matter, the different scales of biological organisation, and because it often includes challenging and counterintuitive concepts that may contradict students’ preconceived notions. Integrating gaming into the high school Biology curriculum not only tackles the challenges of teaching complex concepts but can also promote student engagement. Customising gaming experiences to Biology intricacies enhances critical thinking and creates a dynamic learning environment tailored to the demands of high school biological education. This entry explores the integration of gaming and gamification in high school Biology education to overcome challenges in sustaining student interest. Additionally, the article highlights the diverse applications of games in education, showcasing their versatility in enriching the educational process. Future research should evaluate specific games, explore design principles, and consider challenges associated with implementation. In conclusion, using games in Biology education promises to enhance engagement, promote active learning, and deepen understanding, contributing to narrowing the gap in biological literacy.
  • 3.1K
  • 03 Apr 2024
Topic Review
Gyrotrons
Gyrotrons are among the most powerful sources of coherent radiation that operate in CW and long pulse regimes in the sub-THz and the THz frequency ranges of the electromagnetic spectrum, i.e. between 0.3 THz and 3.0 THz (corresponding to wavelengths from 1.0 to 0.1 mm). This region, which spans between the frequency bands occupied by various electronic and photonic devices, respectively, is habitually called a THz power gap. The underlying mechanism of the operation of the gyrotron involves a formation of bunches of electrons gyrating in a helical electron beam and their synchronous interaction with a fast (i.e. having a superluminal phase velocity) electromagnetic wave, producing a bremsstrahlung radiation. In contrast to the slow-wave tubes, which utilize tiny structures with dimensions comparable to the wavelength of the radiation, the gyrotrons have a simpler resonant system (cavity resonator) with dimensions that are much greater than the wavelength. This allows much more powerful electron beams to be used and thus higher output powers to be achieved. Although in comparison with the classical microwave tubes the gyrotrons are characterized by greater volume and weight due to the presence of bulky parts (such as superconducting magnets and massive collectors where the energy of the spent electron beam is dissipated) they are much more compact and can easily be embedded in a sophisticated laboratory equipment (e.g. spectrometers, technological systems, etc.) than other devices such as free-electron lasers (FEL) and radiation sources based on electron accelerators. Nowadays, the gyrotrons are used as powerful sources of coherent radiation in the wide fields of high-power sub-THz and THz science and technologies [1][2][3].
  • 3.1K
  • 29 Oct 2020
Topic Review
Socialist Party of America
The Socialist Party of America (SPA) was a multi-tendency democratic socialist and social democratic political party in the United States formed in 1901 by a merger between the three-year-old Social Democratic Party of America and disaffected elements of the Socialist Labor Party of America which had split from the main organization in 1899. In the first decades of the 20th century, it drew significant support from many different groups, including trade unionists, progressive social reformers, populist farmers and immigrants. However, it refused to form coalitions with other parties, or even to allow its members to vote for other parties. Eugene V. Debs twice won over 900,000 votes in presidential elections (1912 and 1920) while the party also elected two Representatives (Victor L. Berger and Meyer London), dozens of state legislators, more than a hundred mayors and countless lesser officials. The party's staunch opposition to American involvement in World War I, although welcomed by many, also led to prominent defections, official repression and vigilante persecution. The organization was further shattered by a factional war over how to respond to the October Revolution in Imperial Russia in 1917 and the establishment of the Communist International in 1919—many members left the party in favor of the Communist Party USA. After endorsing Robert M. La Follette's presidential campaign in 1924, the party returned to independent action at the presidential level. It had modest growth in the early 1930s behind presidential candidate Norman Thomas. The party's appeal was weakened by the popularity of President Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal, the organization and flexibility of the Communist Party under Earl Browder and the resurgent labor movement's desire to support sympathetic Democratic Party politicians. A divisive and ultimately unsuccessful attempt to broaden the party by admitting followers of Leon Trotsky and Jay Lovestone caused the traditional "Old Guard" to leave and form the Social Democratic Federation. While the party was always strongly anti-fascist as well as anti-Stalinist, its opposition to American entry in World War II cost it both internal and external support. The party stopped running presidential candidates after 1956, when its nominee Darlington Hoopes won fewer than 6,000 votes. In the party's last decades, its members, many of them prominent in the labor, peace, civil rights and civil liberties movements, fundamentally disagreed about the socialist movement's relationship to the labor movement and the Democratic Party and about how best to advance democracy abroad. In 1970–1973, these strategic differences had become so acute that the Socialist Party of America changed its name to Social Democrats, USA. Leaders of two of its caucuses formed separate socialist organizations, the Democratic Socialist Organizing Committee and the Socialist Party USA, the former of which became a precursor to the largest socialist organization in the United States in 2017, the Democratic Socialists of America.
  • 3.1K
  • 18 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Development and Challenges of Vernacular Architecture
With increasing urbanization, population growth, and rising living standards, sustainability—regarding energy use, buildings, and the environment—is becoming more widely discussed. In an era of tremendous changes in the scale of society and technology, sustainability can help restore important local resources as well as preserve traditional identities. 
  • 3.1K
  • 25 Aug 2023
Topic Review
CO2 Storage in Shale Reservoirs
As a new “sink” of CO2 permanent storage, the depleted shale reservoir is very promising compared to the deep saline aquifer. To provide a greater understanding of the benefits of CO2 storage in a shale reservoir, a comparative study is conducted by establishing the full-mechanism model, including the hydrodynamic trapping, adsorption trapping, residual trapping, solubility trapping as well as the mineral trapping corresponding to the typical shale and deep saline aquifer parameters from the Ordos basin in China. The results show that CO2 storage in the depleted shale reservoir has merits in storage safety by trapping more CO2 in stable immobile phase due to adsorption and having gentler and ephemeral pressure perturbation responding to CO2 injection. The effect of various CO2 injection schemes, namely the high-speed continuous injection, low-speed continuous injection, huff-n-puff injection and water alternative injection, on the phase transformation of CO2 in a shale reservoir and CO2-injection-induced perturbations in formation pressure are also examined. With the aim of increasing the fraction of immobile CO2 while maintaining a safe pressure-perturbation, it is shown that an intermittent injection procedure with multiple slugs of huff-n-puff injection can be employed and within the allowable range of pressure increase, and the CO2 injection rate can be maximized to increase the CO2 storage capacity and security in shale reservoir.
  • 3.1K
  • 11 Jan 2021
Topic Review
Anaxagoras
Anaxagoras (/ˌænækˈsæɡərəs/; Greek: Ἀναξαγόρας, Anaxagoras, "lord of the assembly"; c. 500 – c. 428 BC) was a Pre-Socratic Greek philosopher. Born in Clazomenae at a time when Asia Minor was under the control of the Persian Empire, Anaxagoras came to Athens. According to Diogenes Laërtius and Plutarch, in later life he was charged with impiety and went into exile in Lampsacus; the charges may have been political, owing to his association with Pericles, if they were not fabricated by later ancient biographers. Responding to the claims of Parmenides on the impossibility of change, Anaxagoras described the world as a mixture of primary imperishable ingredients, where material variation was never caused by an absolute presence of a particular ingredient, but rather by its relative preponderance over the other ingredients; in his words, "each one is... most manifestly those things of which there are the most in it". He introduced the concept of Nous (Cosmic Mind) as an ordering force, which moved and separated out the original mixture, which was homogeneous, or nearly so. He also gave a number of novel scientific accounts of natural phenomena. He deduced a correct explanation for eclipses and described the Sun as a fiery mass larger than the Peloponnese, as well as attempting to explain rainbows and meteors.
  • 3.1K
  • 24 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Social Innovation
This entry briefly recounts the history of social innovation and how it went from a descriptive term to a practice-based notion and, finally, to a scientific concept, while highlighting the major transformations it experienced. The text mentions some current debates, before presenting our own definition of social innovation. This definition incorporates contributions from other commonly used definitions while maintaining is operative potential. It also allows to clearly pinpoint what distinguishes social innovation from other types of innovation. The entry ends up with criteria for identifying social innovations.
  • 3.1K
  • 31 Jan 2023
Biography
Uma Narayan
Uma Narayan (born 16 April 1958) is an Indian feminist scholar, and a Professor of Philosophy at Vassar College. She is the author of Dislocating Cultures: Identities, Traditions and Third World Feminism in which Narayan disputes feminism as a solely Western notion and intrusion, while challenging assumptions that India n feminism is based on Western models. In particular, a notion of homogen
  • 3.1K
  • 30 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Layered Oxide Cathodes
Layered intercalation compounds are the dominant cathode materials for rechargeable Li-ion batteries. In this review, we discuss the topology of the layered structure and explain how the structure (1) sets the voltage slope trends among various alkali ions, (2) is critically limited to certain transition metals due to their electronic structure, and (3) controls the alkali diffusion mechanism. 
  • 3.1K
  • 17 Jun 2021
Topic Review
Hericium Erinaceus for Depressive Disorder
Depression is a common and severe neuropsychiatric disorder that is one of the leading causes of global disease burden. Although various anti-depressants are currently available, their efficacies are barely adequate and many have side effects. Hericium erinaceus, also known as Lion’s mane mushroom, has been shown to have various health benefits, including antioxidative, antidiabetic, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antihyperglycemic, and hypolipidemic effects. It has been used to treat cognitive impairment, Parkinson’s disease, and Alzheimer’s disease. Bioactive compounds extracted from the mycelia and fruiting bodies of H. erinaceus have been found to promote the expression of neurotrophic factors that are associated with cell proliferation such as nerve growth factors. Although antidepressant effects of H. erinaceus have not been validated and compared to the conventional antidepressants, based on the neurotrophic and neurogenic pathophysiology of depression, H. erinaceus may be a potential alternative medicine for the treatment of depression. 
  • 3.1K
  • 30 Oct 2020
Topic Review
Water Yam (Dioscorea alata)
Anthracnose disease caused by a fungus Colletotrichum gloeosporioides is the primary cause of yield loss in water yam (Dioscorea alata), the widely cultivated species of yam. Resistance to yam anthracnose disease (YAD) is a prime target in breeding initiatives to develop durable-resistant cultivars for sustainable management of the disease in water yam cultivation.
  • 3.1K
  • 24 Feb 2022
Topic Review
Photolyase
Photolyase is a protein that has various functions, among which is the repair of DNA damaged from exposure to UV rays from the sun.
  • 3.1K
  • 30 Sep 2022
Topic Review
Hydrological Model Uncertainties
Hydrological models are a simplified representation of the natural hydrological processes. These models are developed to understand processes, test hypothesis, and support water resources decision-making. However, as they are simplification of the natural processes, they are inherently uncertain. Their uncertainty primarily stems from their structure, parameter, input and calibration data observations. While parameter and structural uncertainties are related to both data information content and process conceptualizations, input and calibration data observations are a result of data information content. In order to enable an improved process understanding and better decision making, a systemic uncertainty analysis of all of the four sources is critical. 
  • 3.1K
  • 08 Jan 2021
Topic Review
Sodium Alginate
Alginian sodu (Na-Alg) jest rozpuszczalnym w wodzie, obojętnym i liniowym polisacharydem. Jest pochodną kwasu alginowego, który zawiera kwasy 1,4-β-d-mannuronowy (M) i α-l-guluronowy (G) i ma wzór chemiczny (NaC6H7O6). Wykazuje właściwości rozpuszczalne w wodzie, nietoksyczne, biokompatybilne, biodegradowalne i nieimmunogenne. Był używany do różnych zastosowań biomedycznych, wśród których najbardziej obiecujące są dostarczanie leków, dostarczanie genów, opatrywanie ran i ich gojenie.
  • 3.1K
  • 02 Feb 2021
Topic Review
Optical Biomedical Sensors
The optical biomedical sensor industry has grown enormously over the past few years and is expected to grow more in the forthcoming days because of the extensive need for point-of-care testing devices. Researchers all over the world are working on the implementation of highly sensitive, reliable, portable, and inexpensive biomedical appliances, which can revolutionize this market. Optical biosensing is a vast topic, and numerous optical sensing techniques have been presented over the years.These techniques and corresponding technological platforms enabling the manufacturing of optical biomedical sensors of different types.the most representative cases are integrated optical biosensors, vertical grating couplers, plasmonic sensors, surface plasmon resonance optical fiber biosensors, and metasurface biosensors, Photonic crystal-based biosensors, thin metal films biosensors, and fiber Bragg grating biosensors，these optical biomedical sensors might enable the identification of symptoms of deadly illnesses in their early stages; thus, potentially saving a patient’s life. 
  • 3.1K
  • 05 May 2021
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