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Topic Review
Role of Complement System in Alzheimer’s Disease Pathogenesis
As an essential component of the innate immune system, the complement system is responsible for the defense against pathogens. The complement cascade has complex roles in the central nervous system (CNS), numerous reports have implicated the classical complement cascade in both brain development and decline. More specifically, complement dysfunction has been implicated in neurodegenerative disorders, such as Alzheimer’s disease (AD), which is the most common form of dementia. Synapse loss is one of the main pathological hallmarks of AD and correlates with memory impairment. 
  • 830
  • 18 Jan 2024
Topic Review
Treating the Retinal Diseases with Mesenchymal Stem Cells
Retinal diseases are major causes of irreversible vision loss and blindness. Despite extensive research into their pathophysiology and etiology, pharmacotherapy effectiveness and surgical outcomes remain poor. Based largely on numerous preclinical studies, administration of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) as a therapeutic strategy for retinal diseases holds great promise, and various approaches have been applied to the therapies. 
  • 828
  • 09 Jan 2023
Topic Review
Ocular and Oral Microbiome
The immune-privileged healthy eye has a small unique population of microbiota. Typically, ocular microflorae are commensals of low diversity that colonize the external and internal sites of the eye, without instigating any disorders. Any alteration in the symbiotic relationship culminates in the perturbation of ocular homeostasis and shifts the equilibrium toward local or systemic inflammation and, in turn, impaired visual function. A compositional variation in the ocular microbiota is associated with surface disorders such as keratitis, blepharitis, and conjunctivitis, however, studies now implicate non-ocular microbial dysbiosis in glaucoma, age-related macular degeneration (AMD), uveitis, and diabetic retinopathy. A methodical understanding of the mechanisms of invasion and host-microbial interaction is of paramount importance for preventative and therapeutic interventions for vision-threatening conditions.
  • 824
  • 21 Jun 2022
Topic Review
Regulatory T Cells in Celiac Disease Treatment
Celiac disease (CeD) is a T-cell-mediated immune disease, in which gluten-derived peptides activate lamina propria effector CD4+ T cells. While this effector T cell subset produces proinflammatory cytokines, which cause substantial tissue injury in vivo, additional subsets of T cells exist with regulatory functions (Treg). These subsets include CD4+ type 1 regulatory T cells (Tr1) and CD4+ CD25+ T cells expressing the master transcription factor forkhead box P3 (Foxp3) that may have important implications in disease pathogenesis, as well as for the development of new therapeutic strategies for CeD patients.
  • 822
  • 23 Oct 2023
Topic Review
Immunotherapy of Pancreatic Cancer
Immunotherapy is a novel anti-cancer method which employs a different mechanism to conventional treatment. It has become a significant strategy because it provides a better or an alternative option for cancer patients. The development of immunotherapy should focus on the discovery of biomarkers to screen suitable patients, new targets on tumors, neoadjuvant immunotherapy and the combination of immunotherapy with conventional therapeutic methods. 
  • 821
  • 29 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Biomarkers in urothelial cancer
The prognosis and responsiveness to chemotherapy and checkpoint inhibitors differs substantially among patients with bladder cancer (BC). There is an unmet need for biomarkers that can accurately predict prognosis and treatment outcome. Here, we describe the available literature on the prognostic and predictive value of tumor-infiltrating immune cells in BC. Current evidence indicates that a high density of tumor-infiltrating CD8+ T cells is a favorable prognostic factor, whereas PD-L1 expression and tumor-associated macrophages are unfavorable prognostic features. While PD-L1 expression appears unsuccessful as biomarker for response to checkpoint inhibitors, there are some indications that high CD8+ T cell infiltration, low transforming growth factor-beta signaling and low densities of myeloid-derived suppressor cells are associated with response. Future studies should focus on combinations of biomarkers to accurately predict survival and response to treatment.
  • 820
  • 12 Oct 2020
Topic Review
The Tumor Heterogeneity in Sézary Syndrome
Sézary syndrome (SS) is an aggressive variant of cutaneous t-cell lymphoma characterized by the accumulation of neoplastic CD4+ lymphocytes—the SS cells—mainly in blood, lymph nodes, and skin. The tumor spread pattern of SS makes this lymphoma a unique model of disease that allows a concurrent blood and skin sampling for analysis.
  • 819
  • 28 Jun 2022
Topic Review
Factors Modulate Polarization of Tumor-Associated Macrophages
Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) are the earliest infiltrating cells in PanIN lesions and continue to rise throughout cancer progression. TAMs are the most abundant immune cells in the stroma and are the key drivers shaping the immunosuppressive landscape. There are various mechanisms employed to polarize macrophages to tumor-supporting subtypes which subsequently unleash the plethora of neoplastic characteristics, including promoting malignant cell proliferation, augmenting angiogenesis, metastasis, acquiring pleiotropic pancreatic cancer stem-like cells, supporting chemoresistance.
  • 816
  • 13 Jul 2023
Topic Review
Mast Cells in Immune-Mediated Cholangitis
Mast cells (MCs) are a cell lineage produced in the bone marrow from myeloid precursors which express and retain c-kit expression throughout their developmental stages [1]. Cholestasis, which is impaired bile flow from the liver into the intestine, can be caused by cholangitis and/or bile duct obstruction. Cholangitis can arise from bacterial infections and cholelithiasis, however, immune-mediated cholangitis in primary biliary cholangitis (PBC) and primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC) is characterized by a strong immune response targeting the biliary epithelial cells (BECs). Persistent biliary inflammation further represents a risk for biliary neoplasia, cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) by driving chronic cellular stress in the BECs. Currently, immune-mediated cholangitis is considered a Th1-Th17-dominant disease, however, the presence of Th2-related mast cells (MCs) in tissue samples from PBC, PSC and CCA patients has been described, showing that these MCs are active players in these diseases.
  • 814
  • 19 Apr 2022
Topic Review
Gold Organs in Brucellosis
Brucella is an intracellular bacterium that causes abortion, reproduction failure in livestock and leads to a debilitating flu-like illness with serious chronic complications if untreated in humans. The “gold organs” for nesting Brucella, in which Brucella replicates in cells of the reticular endothelial system, include the spleen, lymph nodes, liver, bone marrow, epididymis, and placenta.
  • 814
  • 19 May 2023
Topic Review
ATF3 in Inflammation, Apoptosis, Ferroptosis, and Pathogen Infection
Transcription factors are pivotal regulators in the cellular life process. Activating transcription factor 3 (ATF3), a member of the ATF/CREB (cAMP response element-binding protein) family, plays a crucial role as cells respond to various stresses and damage. As a transcription factor, ATF3 significantly influences signal transduction regulation, orchestrating a variety of signaling pathways, including apoptosis, ferroptosis, and cellular differentiation. In addition, ATF3 serves as an essential link between inflammation, oxidative stress, and immune responses. 
  • 813
  • 20 Feb 2024
Topic Review
Myeloid-Derived Suppressor Cells in Umbilical Cord Blood
Myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) represent a heterogeneous population of myeloid cells that suppress immune responses in cancer, infection, and trauma. They mainly act by inhibiting T-cells, natural-killer cells, and dendritic cells, and also by inducing T-regulatory cells, and modulating macrophages. Although they are mostly associated with adverse prognosis of the underlying disease entity, they may display positive effects in specific situations, such as in allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT), where they attenuate graft-versus-host disease (GVHD). They also contribute to the feto-maternal tolerance, and in the fetus growth process, whereas several pregnancy complications have been associated with their defects. Human umbilical cord blood (UCB) is a source rich in MDSCs.
  • 812
  • 18 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Antineoplastic Therapy Involved in Hypersensitivity Reactions
As widely accepted at present, in addition to their benefits, medicines can also be accompanied by side effects and adverse reactions, of which some can be detrimental to therapies or even life-threatening. In some cases, these effects are enabled or enhanced by certain individual-specific hypersensitivity. Among other manifestations, adverse reactions to drugs resulting from excessive sensitivity may include anaphylaxis. Given that regular toxicity studies are not relevant to point to possible delayed hypersensitivity reactions triggered by systemic products and from the perspective of mechanisms involved in the early and late stages phases of hypersensitivity events, in vitro and in vivo tests remain the means to reveal the cells activated and the mediators released in this process.
  • 812
  • 22 Feb 2023
Topic Review
Burn Injuries
In burn injuries, risk factors and limitations to treatment success are difficult to assess clinically. However, local cellular responses are characterized by specific gene-expression patterns. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are single-stranded, non-coding RNAs that regulate mRNA expression on a posttranscriptional level.
  • 811
  • 13 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Role of the Immune System in IBD-Associated Cancer
Patients with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) have increased incidence of colorectal cancer (CRC). IBD-associated cancer follows a well-characterized sequence of intestinal epithelial changes, in which genetic mutations and molecular aberrations play a key role. IBD-associated cancer develops against a background of chronic inflammation and pro-inflammatory immune cells, and their products contribute to cancer development and progression. In recent years, the effect of the immunosuppressive microenvironment in cancer development and progression has gained more attention, mainly because of the unprecedented anti-tumor effects of immune checkpoint inhibitors in selected groups of patients. Even though IBD-associated cancer develops in the background of chronic inflammation which is associated with activation of endogenous anti-inflammatory or suppressive mechanisms, the potential role of an immunosuppressive microenvironment in these cancers is largely unknown.
  • 811
  • 13 Dec 2021
Topic Review
The Role of Immune System in Tumor Microenvironment
The immune system is a complicated set of cells, tissues, and organs. They work together to preserve organisms from dangerous substances, pathogens, and tissue damage and to stop the event of diseases. The immune system has been categorized into innate and adaptive immunity based on variations in the activation of immune responses to many threats. Immune cells are a part of the tumor microenvironment (TME) and the communication between immune cells, other TME cells, and cancer cells plays a principal role in tumor development.
  • 810
  • 12 Jan 2023
Topic Review
Blood-Borne Proteins in Alzheimer’s Disease
The blood–brain barrier (BBB) restricts entry of neurotoxic plasma components, blood cells, and pathogens into the brain, leading to proper neuronal functioning. BBB impairment leads to blood-borne protein infiltration such as prothrombin, thrombin, prothrombin kringle-2, fibrinogen, fibrin, and other harmful substances. Thus, microglial activation and release of pro-inflammatory mediators commence, resulting in neuronal damage and leading to impaired cognition via neuroinflammatory responses, which are important features observed in the brain of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) patients.
  • 810
  • 17 May 2023
Topic Review
T Cell Chemotaxis and Infiltration in Glioblastoma
Glioblastoma is an immunologically ‘cold’ tumor, which are characterized by absent or minimal numbers of tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs). For those tumors that have been invaded by lymphocytes, they are profoundly exhausted and ineffective. While many immunotherapy approaches seek to reinvigorate immune cells at the tumor, this requires TILs to be present. 
  • 810
  • 04 Nov 2021
Topic Review
Autophagy in Virus Infection
Virus-infected cells trigger a robust innate immune response and facilitate virus replication. Autophagy is a cellular degradation pathway operated at the basal level to maintain homeostasis and is induced by external stimuli for specific functions. The degradative function of autophagy is considered a cellular anti-viral immune response. However, autophagy is a double-edged sword in viral infection; viruses often benefit from it, and the infected cells can also use it to inhibit viral replication. In addition to viral regulation, autophagy pathway proteins also function in autophagy-independent manners to regulate immune responses. Since viruses have co-evolved with hosts, they have developed ways to evade the anti-viral autophagic responses of the cells. 
  • 809
  • 17 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Mechanisms of Immunosuppression in Sepsis
Severe infection can lead to sepsis. In sepsis, the host mounts an inappropriately large inflammatory response in an attempt to clear the invading pathogen. This sustained high level of inflammation may cause tissue injury and organ failure. Later in sepsis, a paradoxical immunosuppression occurs, where the host is unable to clear the preexisting infection and is susceptible to secondary infections. A major issue with sepsis treatment is that it is difficult for physicians to ascertain which stage of sepsis the patient is in. Sepsis treatment will depend on the patient’s immune status across the spectrum of the disease, and these immune statuses are nearly polar opposites in the early and late stages of sepsis.
  • 809
  • 01 Feb 2024
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