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Patients with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) have increased incidence of colorectal cancer (CRC). IBD-associated cancer follows a well-characterized sequence of intestinal epithelial changes, in which genetic mutations and molecular aberrations play a key role. IBD-associated cancer develops against a background of chronic inflammation and pro-inflammatory immune cells, and their products contribute to cancer development and progression. In recent years, the effect of the immunosuppressive microenvironment in cancer development and progression has gained more attention, mainly because of the unprecedented anti-tumor effects of immune checkpoint inhibitors in selected groups of patients. Even though IBD-associated cancer develops in the background of chronic inflammation which is associated with activation of endogenous anti-inflammatory or suppressive mechanisms, the potential role of an immunosuppressive microenvironment in these cancers is largely unknown.
Ulcerative Colitis (UC) and Crohn’s Disease (CD) are the two forms of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), characterized by chronic inflammation of the digestive tract leading to diarrhea, rectal bleeding and abdominal pain. One of the most severe complications of IBD is the development of colorectal cancer (CRC). It is generally accepted that the continuous exposure of intestinal epithelial cells (IECs) to proinflammatory stimuli and excessive cell damage with increased IECs turnover results in both genetic and immunological alterations, making IBD patients prone to developing CRC [1][2][3]. Population-based evaluations estimate that UC increases the risk of developing CRC two to three-fold compared to the non-IBD population [4][5] and patients with CD have also been reported to have increased CRC risk when compared to the general population [6][7]. The risk of developing CRC increases significantly after 10 years of IBD diagnosis and is higher in patients with continuous chronic intestinal inflammation, highlighting the crucial role of a prolonged inflamed environment in the pathogenesis of IBD-associated cancer [8][9][10]. Compared to sporadic CRC, IBD-associated cancer has worse overall survival rates. The reported differences in clinical features, disease pathogenesis and epidemiologic characteristics, which may be explained by differences in tumor biology, have recently been excellently reviewed [11].
IBD-associated tumorigenesis follows a multistep sequence of genetic and morphological alterations in the intestinal epithelium, from inflamed intestinal mucosa to dysplasia and finally carcinoma [12][13]. The genetic mutations that drive the progression from dysplasia to carcinoma in IBD-associated cancer have been extensively studied and include mutations in tumor suppressor genes (TP53 mutations) and in genes that regulate the cell cycle and cell proliferation such as KRAS and APC mutations. Surprisingly, there is very little difference in the genetic mutations that drive carcinogenesis among IBD-associated cancer and sporadic CRC [14][15].
As IBD-associated dysplasia develops in the background of chronic inflammation, studies have highlighted the role of pro-inflammatory cytokines on tumorigenesis. Most observations were made in mouse models [16][17][18][19]. Little is known about the potential role of endogenous anti-inflammatory or immunosuppressive mechanisms that evolve as a consequence of chronic inflammation in the gastrointestinal tract, although such immunosuppressive mechanisms may contribute to tumorigenesis by impairing anti-tumor immunity.
Immune Cell | Mechanism |
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Macrophages |
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Dendritic Cells (DCs) |
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Myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) |
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T cells |
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Natural Killer (NK) cells |
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The lamina propria intestinal T-cell compartment is mainly composed of effector memory CD4+ resident T cells [103]. They are categorized as CD4+ helper T cells (Th), which are further subdivided into Th1, Th2, Th17 and Treg cells (Figure 3). The first three subtypes are effector T cells that act against intracellular pathogens (Th1), helminth parasites and other extracellular microbes (Th2) and extracellular bacteria and fungi (Th17)[104]. In addition, they actively participate in other non-infectious pathologies, such as allergies, autoimmune diseases or anti-tumor immune responses [104]. Conversely, Tregs are in charge of suppressing and controlling immune responses [105]. Although all these Th subtypes are present in the lamina propria, there is an enrichment of Foxp3+ Tregs and IL-17 producing Th17 cells in the lamina propria under homeostatic conditions [106]. In IBD, however, an imbalance of the homeostatic Th populations has been observed in the gut, with Th1-Th17/Th2 polarization of T CD4+ cell immune responses being involved in IBD pathophysiology [107] .
T cells play a crucial role in immunosurveillance; CD8+ T cells can directly eliminate neoplastic cells, and CD4+ T cells collaborate with macrophages, NK cells and CD8+ T cells to mount anti-tumor immune responses [108][109][110]. In IBD-associated cancer, possible immunosurveillance functions of T cells in dysplastic lesions were postulated, associated with the expression of the co-stimulatory molecule CD80. Specifically, it was demonstrated that inhibition of CD80 signaling in vivo in a CAC mouse model significantly increased the frequency and size of high-grade dysplastic lesions, whereas restoration of CD80 expression decreased colonic dysplasia [111] . Another T-cell related immunological interaction relates to the CD30/CD30L axis. CD30L is expressed on T CD4+-activated cells[112]. Deletion of CD30L in an AOM/DSS-induced CAC mouse model promoted formation of an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment, characterized by an increased percentage of PD-L1+ MDSCs and tolerogenic macrophages [113].
In addition, an earlier study comparing dysplastic lesions and cancers from patients with and without IBD showed that although IBD-associated dysplasia and cancer was associated with increased CD8+ T cell infiltration, these CD8+ T cells showed less expression of granzyme B and were thus less efficient in killing tumor cells [76] (Table 1). Furthermore, Yu et al. demonstrated that intratumoral CD8+ T cells in CAC mice display increased expression of the inhibitory markers PD-1 and CTLA-4, which may also indicate the presence of exhausted T cells [74]. This suppressive T-cell phenotype may contribute to tumor development, as effector cytokine production (IL-2, IFN-γ) is progressively lost in exhausted T cells [114], dampening effective immune responses against neoplastic cells. Similarly, upregulation of PD-1 expression in T CD8+ intraepithelial lymphocytes in mice subjected to AOM/DSS was identified [75] (Table 1), which was likely induced by repetitive cycles of inflammation. In humans, it was shown that patients with UC-associated dysplasia and cancer had increased expression of the PD-1 ligand PD-L1 on CD8+ T cells, as compared to sporadic CRC. PD-L1 overexpression correlated to chronic inflammation-induced DNA damage, and PD-L1 upregulation was mediated by inflammation-induced upregulation of IRF-1 [115] (Table 1). Whether this exhaustion phenotype on T cells also leads to decreased effector functions of T cells, and thus interferes with their immunosurveillance function, needs further investigation.
Lastly, Tregs have an important immunomodulatory role in limiting excessive inflammatory immune responses. They counteract the inflammatory response, but in the setting of cancer, expansion of the Treg pool may shape an immunosuppressive niche in which tumors can progress (Figure 2). In the context of IBD-associated cancer, studies in the AOM/DSS mouse model have shown that ablation of CD4+Foxp3+ Treg cells suppressed tumor growth, which was associated with increased numbers of CD8+IFN-γ+ Granzyme B-producing effector T cells [77][78] (Table 1). This demonstrates how immunosuppressive Tregs may be involved in the pathophysiology of IBD-associated cancer. Apart from immunosuppressive Tregs, IL17+Foxp3+CD4+ T cells, which can be induced by TGF-β, and IL-2 were identified as a functional proinflammatory Treg subpopulation present in the mucosal tissues of patients with active UC and in patients with UC-associated cancer, but not in non-inflammatory cancers, indicating that this subset of Tregs may also play a role in CAC pathogenesis [116].
Another interesting Treg subset in the setting of intestinal inflammation-induced cancer is the Foxp3+RORγt+ T cell. RORγt is a transcription factor other than Foxp3 which plays a role in Treg and Th17 differentiation. Studies have shown that RORγt+Treg cells promote inflammation and tumorigenesis by production of IL-17n [117] , and they are observed in IBD and IBD-associated dysplastic lesions [118][119] . The tumor-promoting role of these cells has been demonstrated by Treg-specific deletion of RORγt in CAC mice, which resulted in decreased tumor incidence and decreased expression of ki67 and STAT3 in dysplastic lesions [119] ]. These data highlight the potential role for this Treg subset in IBD-associated tumorigenesis.
In summary, T cells exert a crucial function in killing neoplastic cells, but chronic inflammation as observed in IBD may induce an immunosuppressive environment with T-cell exhaustion and excessive Treg cell recruitment, which prevents adequate immunosurveillance and promotes evolution from non-dysplastic mucosa to dysplasia and/or carcinoma. In addition, pro-inflammatory Treg subpopulations such as IL-17-producing Tregs and Foxp3+RORγt+ Tregs may contribute to cancer development in IBD. It will be interesting to unravel the role of these T cell subsets in IBD-associated dysplasia and cancer in humans.
Innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) are a relatively recently discovered group of innate immune cells with diverse and important functions. They are generally classified in three types, with type 1 ILCs including NK cells. A large body of evidence demonstrates their role in IBD pathophysiology [120] . In line with this, patients with Crohn’s disease have increased numbers of NK cells in the small intestinal epithelial compartment [121] and colonic lamina propria [122].
Apart from their role in inflammation, NK cells have important anti-tumorigenic functions and play a pivotal role in clearing cancer cells [123][124]. In IBD-associated cancer, it has been proposed that NK cells participate in anti-tumor immunity through IL-15 stimulation produced by CD11c+ DCs [125]. Specifically, AOM/DSS-treated mice that deleted IL-15 showed reduced survival and higher tumor incidence. Conversely, reconstitution of IL-15 expression selectively in CD11c+ DCs restored NK cells and CD8+ T-cell compartments, with a subsequent reduction in tumor burden.
In the setting of chronic inflammation, NK cell immunosurveillance capacity may be compromised. In a recent study that addressed metabolic and functional profile of blood circulating NK cells in IBD patients, it was demonstrated that these NK cells produce pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-17A and TNF-α ex vivo, but they show limited killing capacity and defective mitochondrial activity [79] (Table 1). It could be hypothesized that such defects in NK cell killing capacity as observed in IBD patients might contribute to decreased immunosurveillance.
Additionally, type 3 ILCs (ILC3s), the innate counterparts of Th17 cells from the adaptive immune system, may be involved in IBD-associated cancer formation. ILC3s secrete cytokines including IL-23, IL-17 and IL-22, all of which have pro-tumorigenic effects [126][127][128] . Accumulation of IL-17+ IL-22+ ILC3s was identified in the colonic mucosa from CAC mice. The authors demonstrated the contribution of these cells to tumorigenesis in the context of UC, since its depletion blocks the development of invasive cancer lesions from dysplastic precursors. Further mechanistic analyses showed that IL-22 produced by colonic ILC3s in CAC mice acts on IECs to induce STAT3 phosphorylation [129]. Given the already known pro-cancer effect of STAT3 immune signaling [130], this study demonstrates an active role of ILCs in dampening anti-tumoral immune responses.
Thus, even though some ILCs, such as NK cells, are vital for mounting adequate anti-tumor immune responses, other ILCs including ILC3s may have a pro-tumorigenic effects via secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines.
Long-standing chronic inflammation as observed in the intestinal mucosa of IBD patients increases the risk of CRC. The genetic and molecular changes in IECs of IBD-associated cancers are well characterized, and the role of immune cell-derived pro-inflammatory mediators has been studied extensively, mostly using mouse models.
Less studied potential mechanisms of CAC are the anti-inflammatory/immunosuppressive pathways that emerge during long lasting inflammation, which may create a niche for tumors to grow. It is already well-known that cancers can promote an immunosuppressive microenvironment favoring its own growth and progression. In recent years, this phenomenon has gained more attention, mainly due to the noticeable anti-tumor effects of immune checkpoint inhibitors, which revert to this immunosuppressive state and activate the immune system. Here, we provide an overview of different immune cells that are recruited into the inflamed mucosa of IBD patients and describe how these immune cells impact cancer development, either by anti- or pro-tumorigenic effects. For example, increased expression of T-cell inhibitory receptors such as PD-1 and CTLA-4 have been observed in intratumoral CD4+ and CD8+ T cells lesions in mouse models for inflammation-driven colorectal cancer, indicating that T-cell suppression may be involved in the etiology of IBD-associated cancer. Although there are only limited data in humans, the chronic inflammation-induced immunosuppressive environment may thus be another mechanism driving colitis-associated cancer, not only by induction of dysfunctional, exhausted T cells, but also by the recruitment of Tregs, MDSCs and other suppressor cells into the inflamed intestinal mucosa.
It is important to understand the immunosuppressive mechanisms that evolve during chronic inflammation and may be involved in cancer development by allowing cancers to evade anti-tumor immune responses. This is especially the case for patients at high risk for developing IBD-associated dysplasia and cancer, such as patients with IBD and PSC. Additionally, better understanding of the mechanisms involved may dictate the choice of immunosuppressive drugs used in these patients.