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Topic Review
Alvin Plantinga's Free Will Defense
Alvin Plantinga's free will defense is a logical argument developed by American analytic philosopher Alvin Plantinga, the John A. O'Brien Professor of Philosophy Emeritus at the University of Notre Dame, and published in its final version in his 1977 book God, Freedom, and Evil. Plantinga's argument is a defense against the logical problem of evil as formulated by philosopher J. L. Mackie beginning in 1955. Mackie's formulation of the logical problem of evil argued that three attributes of God, omniscience, omnipotence, and omnibenevolence, in orthodox Christian theism are logically incompatible with the existence of evil. In 1982, Mackie conceded that Plantinga's defense successfully refuted his argument in The Miracle of Theism, though he did not claim that the problem of evil had been put to rest.
  • 12.3K
  • 18 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Alternating Current Loss of Superconductors
Alternating current (AC) loss is generated due to the movement of magnetic vortices within the superconductor when experiencing time-varying currents or magnetic fields (or both). AC loss can be categorized into transport current loss and magnetization loss based on the AC source. Particularly, when a superconductor carries a direct current (DC) and is simultaneously exposed to an AC field, dynamic resistance occurs and leads to dynamic loss. Quantification and minimization of AC loss are crucial because the produced heat can not only present severe challenges to the cryogenic systems but also impair the reliability of superconducting devices, leaving a safety hazard. To quantify the AC loss of superconductors, analytical formulae, numerical models, and experimental measurements have been widely adopted. Concerning AC loss minimization techniques, the modification of superconductor structures (filamentation and twisting), flux diverters, as well as winding techniques have been widely exploited. This entry serves to clarify the characteristics and quantification methods of AC loss as well as its minimization techniques in superconductors. It is believed to help deepen the understanding of AC loss and deliver a helpful guideline for future research efforts.
  • 12.3K
  • 14 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Levirate Marriage
Levirate marriage is a type of marriage in which the brother of a deceased man is obliged to marry his brother's widow. The term levirate is itself a derivative of the Latin word levir meaning "husband's brother". Levirate marriage has been practiced by societies with a strong clan structure in which exogamous marriage (i.e. marriage outside the clan) was forbidden. It has been known in many societies around the world.
  • 12.3K
  • 03 Mar 2023
Topic Review
DPSIR Model
       The Driving force – Pressure – Status – Impact - Response (DPSIR) framework has been widely used in literature to analyse environmental problems. The DPSIR facilitates the investigation of all the possible cause-effect relationships and to plan appropriate technological responses.  This contribution shows an application of the DPSIR to the remediation of contaminated sites, exploiting the case study of the Mar Piccolo di Taranto (Southern Italy). Methodologically, several references were considered, whose information was classified according to the logical scheme of the DPSIR. Among the results it is interesting to observe how, due to its natural hydrogeological network conformation, the Mar Piccolo represents the final receptor of pollutants from industrial, anthropic and agricultural activities. The mobility of contaminants from sediments to the water column and the subsequent bioaccumulation into marine organisms pose a serious threat of unacceptable magnitude to human safety. Responses may concern restriction of area use, control of pollution fonts as well as the implementation of suitable contaminated marine sediment remediation measures. It is noted that the preliminary organization of the existing data can lead to the development of a DPSIR-based Environmental Decision Support System (EDSS). 
  • 12.3K
  • 30 Oct 2020
Topic Review
Monochromatic X-rays
Monochromatic X-ray has a single energy level in contrast to white X-rays used in conventional radiation therapy. Irradiation of high Z elements such as gadolinium, gold and silver with a monochromatic X-ray can result in photoelectric effects that includes the release of the Auger electrons that have strong cell killing effect. To apply this principle to cancer therapy, various nanoparticles loaded with high Z elements have been developed that enabled high Z elements to be delivered to tumor. The recent addition is gadolinium-loaded mesoporous silica nanoparticle (Gd-MSN). Tumor spheroids have been used as a convenient tumor model to demonstrate that monochromatic X-rays with energy level at or higher than the K-edge energy of gadolinium can destruct tumor mass that has Gd-MSN distributed throughout tumor spheroids.
  • 12.3K
  • 22 Jul 2020
Topic Review
Pearlescent Pigments
Pigments are substances used to modify the colour of a material, which, unlike dyes, are insoluble both in common solvents and binders. Pigments can be either organic or inorganic, though the latest type is the most used and widespread for industry applications.
  • 12.2K
  • 01 Nov 2020
Topic Review
Non-Governmental Organisations and Sustainable Community Development
Alternative healthcare, community development, social justice, and education are all areas where non-governmental organisations (NGOs) are increasingly being recognised or promoted, but these efforts are hampered by government inefficiency and resource constraints. However, the statement of non-profit organisations is more complicated than simply comparing them to the government, as they may also suffer from a lack of resources and ineffective management, just like the government. Meanwhile, NGOs are generally defined by four characteristics: they are voluntary, non-partisan, non-profit, and non-criminal. According to Salamon and Anheier, seven distinct characteristics were used to categorise and differentiate NGOs. The seven characteristics are as follows: (1) formal (officially registered and governed); (2) private (having a separate organisation from the government); (3) non-profit distributing (different from the objectives of establishing a business organisation); (4) self-governing (privately managed); (5) voluntary (worked voluntarily); (6) non-religious (not motivated by preaching); and (7) non-political (not involved in promoting candidates in elections). These characteristics are particularly useful for identifying and differentiating NGOs from other organisations.
  • 12.2K
  • 13 Apr 2022
Topic Review
400 kV Double-Circuit Transmission Lines
A high-voltage AC double-circuit 400 kV overhead power transmission line runs from the city of Elk (Poland) to the city of Alytus (Lithuania). This international 400 kV power transmission line is potentially one of the strongest magnetic field-generating sources in the area. This 400 kV voltage double-circuit overhead transmission line and its surroundings were analyzed using the mathematical analytical methods of superposition and reflections. This research paper includes the calculation of the numerical values of the magnetic field and its distribution. The research showed that the values of the magnetic field strength near the international 400 kV power transmission line exceed the threshold values permitted by relevant standards. This overhead power line is connected to the general (50 Hz) power system and generates a highly intense magnetic field. It is suggested that experimental trials should be undertaken in order to determine the maximum values of the magnetic field strength. For the purpose of mitigating these values, it is suggested that the height of the support bars should be increased or that any individual and commercial activities near the object under investigation should be restricted.
  • 12.2K
  • 20 Apr 2021
Topic Review
Sati (Buddhism)
Sati (from Pali: सति; Sanskrit: स्मृति smṛti) is mindfulness or awareness, a spiritual or psychological faculty (indriya) that forms an essential part of Buddhist practice. It is the first factor of the Seven Factors of Enlightenment. "Correct" or "right" mindfulness (Pali: sammā-sati, Sanskrit samyak-smṛti) is the seventh element of the Noble Eightfold Path.
  • 12.2K
  • 25 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Shooting-Brake
Shooting-brake is a car body style which originated in the 1890s as a horse-drawn wagon used to transport shooting parties with their equipment and game. The first automotive shooting brakes were manufactured in the early 1900s in the United Kingdom. The vehicle style became popular in England during the 1920s and 1930s, and was produced by vehicle manufacturers or as conversions by coachbuilders. The term was used in Britain interchangeably with estate car from the 1930s but has not been in general use for many years and has been more or less superseded by the latter term. Since the 1960s, the term has evolved, describing cars combining elements of both station wagon and coupé body styles, with or without reference to the historical usage for shooting parties. During the 1960s and early 1970s, several high-end European manufacturers produced two-door shooting brake versions of their sports cars. Following a hiatus from the mid 1970s until the early 2010s, the shooting-brake body style entered a resurgence.
  • 12.2K
  • 04 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Biological Effects and Mechanisms of Electromagnetic Radiation
Modern humanity wades daily through various radiations, resulting in frequent exposure and causing potentially important biological effects. Among them, the brain is the organ most sensitive to electromagnetic radiation (EMR) exposure.
  • 12.2K
  • 31 Aug 2022
Topic Review
White Tiger
The white tiger or bleached tiger is a pigmentation variant of the Bengal tiger, which is reported in the wild from time to time in the Indian states of Madhya Pradesh, Assam, West Bengal and Bihar in the Sunderbans region and especially in the former State of Rewa. Such a tiger has the black stripes typical of the Bengal tiger, but carries a white or near-white coat.
  • 12.2K
  • 19 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Physical and Chemical Aspects of Fog Water
Fog water have been rapidly increasing due to its negative impacts on different environmental processes. However, fog water harvesting has become beneficial in various countries to overcome water scarcity. Accurate fog forecasting remains a challenging issue due to its spatio-temporal variability and uncertainties despite the development and efforts made to understand its chemistry and microphysics. The literature proved that the decrease in fog frequency over time in most countries is mainly attributed to the improvement in air quality or the change in regional climatic conditions. 
  • 12.2K
  • 05 Jan 2024
Topic Review
Polio Virus
Poliovirus is a member of a family of viruses called the Picornaviridae.
  • 12.2K
  • 16 Sep 2022
Topic Review
Linguistic Universal
A linguistic universal is a statement that is true for all natural languages. For example, All languages have nouns and verbs, or All spoken languages have consonants and vowels. Research in this area of linguistics is closely tied to linguistic typology, and intends to reveal information about how the human brain processes language. The field was largely pioneered by the linguist Joseph Greenberg, who from a set of some thirty languages derived a set of basic universals, mostly dealing with syntax.
  • 12.2K
  • 15 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Benzodiazepines
The Benzodiazepines (BDZs) are a group of components that receive their name because in their chemical structure have a benzene ring joined to other seven-members heterocyclic ring called Diazepine.
  • 12.2K
  • 13 Apr 2021
Topic Review
Atonement in Christianity
In Christian theology, atonement describes how human beings can be reconciled to God through Christ's sacrificial suffering and death. Atonement refers to the forgiving or pardoning of sin in general and original sin in particular through the suffering, death and resurrection of Jesus, enabling the reconciliation between God and his creation. Within Christianity there are, historically, three or four main theories for how such atonement might work: Other theories include recapitulation theory, the "shared atonement" theory and scapegoat theory. The English word 'atonement' originally meant "at-one-ment", i.e. being "at one", in harmony, with someone. It is used to describe the saving work that God did through Christ to reconcile the world to himself, and also of the state of a person having been reconciled to God. Throughout the centuries, Christians have used different metaphors and given differing explanations of the atonement to express how the atonement might work. Churches and denominations may vary in which metaphor or explanation they consider most accurately fits into their theological perspective; however all Christians emphasize that Jesus is the Saviour of the world and through his death the sins of humanity have been forgiven.
  • 12.2K
  • 01 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Mooning
Mooning is the act of displaying one's bare buttocks by removing clothing, e.g., by lowering the backside of one's trousers and underpants, usually bending over, whether also exposing the genitals or not. Mooning is used in the English-speaking world to express protest, scorn, disrespect, or provocation, or can be done for shock value, fun, or as a form of exhibitionism. Some jurisdictions regard mooning to be indecent exposure, sometimes depending on the context.
  • 12.2K
  • 27 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Manila Galleon
The Manila Galleons (Spanish: Galeón de Manila; Filipino: Galyon ng Maynila) were Spain trading ships which for two-and-a-half centuries linked the Spanish Captaincy General of the Philippines with Mexico across the Pacific Ocean, making one or two round-trip voyages per year between the ports of Acapulco and Manila, which were both part of New Spain. The name of the galleon changed to reflect the city that the ship sailed from. The term Manila galleon can also refer to the trade route itself between Acapulco and Manila, which lasted from 1565 to 1815. The Manila galleons sailed the Pacific for 250 years, bringing to the Americas cargoes of luxury goods such as spices and porcelain in exchange for New World silver. The route also fostered cultural exchanges that shaped the identities and culture of the countries involved. The Manila galleons were also (somewhat confusingly) known in New Spain as La Nao de la China ("The China Ship") on their voyages from the Philippines because they carried mostly Chinese goods, shipped from Manila. The Spanish inaugurated the Manila galleon trade route in 1565 after the Augustinian friar and navigator Andrés de Urdaneta pioneered the tornaviaje or return route from the Philippines to Mexico. Urdaneta and Alonso de Arellano made the first successful round trips that year. The trade using "Urdaneta's route" lasted until 1815, when the Mexican War of Independence broke out. In 2015 the Philippines and Mexico began preparations for the nomination of the Manila-Acapulco Galleon Trade Route in the UNESCO World Heritage List, with backing from Spain. Spain has also suggested the tri-national nomination of the Archives on the Manila-Acapulco Galleons in the UNESCO Memory of the World Register.
  • 12.1K
  • 18 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Greenhouse Drying System
Drying via solar energy is an environmentally friendly and inexpensive process. For controlled and bulk level drying, a greenhouse solar dryer is the most suitable controlled level solar dryer. The efficiency of a solar greenhouse dryer can be increased by using thermal storage. The agricultural products dried in greenhouses are reported to be of a higher quality than those dried in the sun because they are shielded from dust, rain, insects, birds, and animals. The heat storage-based greenhouse was found to be superior for drying of all types of crops in comparison to a normal greenhouse dryer, as it provides constant heat throughout the drying process.
  • 12.1K
  • 30 Jan 2023
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