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Topic Review
Signal Transduction Pathways of Glioblastoma Stem Cells
Glioblastoma stem cells (GSCs) are a unique population of tumor cells that contribute to tumor growth, invasion, and resistance to chemotherapy and radiation therapy. These stem cells are capable of self-renewal and proliferation. The contributions of GSCs to tumor pathogenesis are mediated by a diverse repertoire of signaling pathways that influence GSC function and stemness. Molecules in these pathways may serve as the basis of anti-GSC targets. 
  • 1.1K
  • 05 Aug 2022
Topic Review
Cytokines as Selected Biomarkers of Depression
Depression is one of the leading mental illnesses worldwide and lowers the quality of life of many. According to WHO, about 5% of the worldwide population suffers from depression. Studies report a staggering global prevalence of 27.6%, and it is rising. Professionally, depression belonging to affective disorders is a psychiatric illness, and the category of major depressive disorder (MDD) comprises various diagnoses related to persistent and disruptive mood disorders. Due to this fact, it is imperative to find a way to assess depression quantitatively using a specific biomarker or a panel of biomarkers that would be able to reflect the patients’ state and the effects of therapy. Cytokines, hormones, oxidative stress markers, and neuropeptides are studied in association with depression. 
  • 1.1K
  • 31 Jan 2023
Topic Review
Cytokine Imbalance in Treatment-Resistant Schizophrenia
Treatment-resistant schizophrenia (TRS) is an important and unresolved problem in biological and clinical psychiatry. Approximately 30% of cases of schizophrenia (Sch) are TRS, which may be due to the fact that some patients with TRS may suffer from pathogenetically “non-dopamine” Sch, in the development of which neuroinflammation is supposed to play an important role. There are many factors leading to a chronic neuroinflammatory process in TRS. 
  • 1.1K
  • 27 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Multiple Sclerosis Pathology--Potential Disease Biomarkers
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a complex disease of the central nervous system (CNS) that involves an intricate and aberrant interaction of immune cells leading to inflammation, demyelination, and neurodegeneration. Due to the heterogeneity of clinical subtypes, their diagnosis becomes challenging and the best treatment cannot be easily provided to patients. Biomarkers have been used to simplify the diagnosis and prognosis of MS, as well as to evaluate the results of clinical treatments.
  • 1.1K
  • 15 Dec 2021
Topic Review
Therapeutic Efficacies of Berberine against Neurological Disorders
Neurological disorders refer to any dysfunctions of the nervous system, and mainly include Alzheimer’s disease (AD), Parkinson’s disease (PD), Huntington’s disease (HD), dementia, schizophrenia, anxiety, depression, epilepsy, traumatic brain injury (TBI), and brain tumor. The burden of deaths and disabilities caused by neurological disorders has been increasing dramatically, ranking it as the leading cause of disability and the second leading cause of death worldwide. The World Health Organization predicts that by 2040, as many developed countries’ populations age, neurological disorders will overtake cancer to become the second leading cause of death worldwide. Nevertheless, there is no treatment that can cure neurological disorders, and the current treatments mainly target the amelioration of symptoms. Berberine, a natural alkaloid, is mainly isolated from Coptis chinensis, Berberis vulgaris, Hydrastis canadensis, and Phellodendron amurense. For over a thousand years, these herbs have been used for treating diarrhea without any obvious side effects in patients. With the advances of pharmacological research, BBR has been considered as a promising multitarget drug (MTD) for treating neurological disorders.
  • 1.1K
  • 07 Mar 2022
Topic Review
MSProDiscuss™ for Identifying Multiple Sclerosis Progression
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic, potentially debilitating autoimmune-mediated neurological disorder of the central nervous system (CNS) and the most common acquired degenerative disease of the CNS in young adults. MSProDiscuss, developed with physicians and patients, facilitates a structured approach to patient consultations. It analyzes multidimensional data via an algorithm to estimate the likelihood of progression (the MSProDiscuss score), the contribution of various symptoms, and the impact of symptoms on daily living, enabling a more personalized approach to treatment and disease management. Data from clinical decision support (CDS) tools such as MSProDiscuss offer new insights into disease course and facilitate informed decision-making and a holistic approach to MS patient care. 
  • 1.1K
  • 26 Aug 2022
Topic Review
Atypical Ubiquitination and Parkinson’s Disease
Ubiquitination (the covalent attachment of ubiquitin molecules to target proteins) is one of the main post-translational modifications of proteins. Historically, the type of polyubiquitination, which involves K48 lysine residues of the monomeric ubiquitin, was the first studied type of ubiquitination. It usually targets proteins for their subsequent proteasomal degradation. All the other types of ubiquitination, including monoubiquitination; multi-monoubiquitination; and polyubiquitination involving lysine residues K6, K11, K27, K29, K33, and K63 and N-terminal methionine, were defined as atypical ubiquitination (AU). Good evidence now exists that AUs, participating in the regulation of various cellular processes, are crucial for the development of Parkinson’s disease (PD). These AUs target various proteins involved in PD pathogenesis. The K6-, K27-, K29-, and K33-linked polyubiquitination of alpha-synuclein, the main component of Lewy bodies, and DJ-1 (another PD-associated protein) is involved in the formation of insoluble aggregates. Multifunctional protein kinase LRRK2 essential for PD is subjected to K63- and K27-linked ubiquitination. Mitophagy mediated by the ubiquitin ligase parkin is accompanied by K63-linked autoubiquitination of parkin itself and monoubiquitination and polyubiquitination of mitochondrial proteins with the formation of both classical K48-linked ubiquitin chains and atypical K6-, K11-, K27-, and K63-linked polyubiquitin chains. The ubiquitin-specific proteases USP30, USP33, USP8, and USP15, removing predominantly K6-, K11-, and K63-linked ubiquitin conjugates, antagonize parkin-mediated mitophagy. 
  • 1.1K
  • 13 May 2022
Topic Review
Dejavu
Dejavu is the feeling that you have already experienced something that is actually happening for the first time. Mental illusion is a false mental image produced by misinterpretation of things that actually exist. Hallucination is an experience involving the apparent perception of something not present. Crypto amensia is an implicit memory phenomenon in which people mistakenly believe that a current thought or idea is a product of their own creation when, in fact, they have encountered it previously and then forgotten it. Glitch is a minor problem that causes a temporary setback. Reincarnation is the rebirth of a soul in another body. Dreams is a series of thoughts, images, and sensations occurring in a person's mind during sleep. Fragment is a small part broken off. Hyperdopaminergic is excess secretion of the Dopamine (Neurotransmitter).
  • 1.1K
  • 16 May 2023
Topic Review
Expression and Epigenetics of Genes for Parkinson’s Disease
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a disorder characterized by a triad of motor symptoms (akinesia, rigidity, resting tremor) related to loss of dopaminergic neurons mainly in the Substantia nigra pars compacta. Diagnosis is often made after a substantial loss of neurons has already occurred, and while dopamine replacement therapies improve symptoms, they do not modify the course of the disease. Although some biological mechanisms involved in the disease have been identified, such as oxidative stress and accumulation of misfolded proteins, they do not explain entirely PD pathophysiology, and a need for a better understanding remains. Neurodegenerative diseases, including PD, appear to be the result of complex interactions between genetic and environmental factors. The latter can alter gene expression by causing epigenetic changes, such as DNA methylation, post-translational modification of histones and non-coding RNAs. Regulation of genes responsible for monogenic forms of PD may be involved in sporadic PD.
  • 1.1K
  • 22 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Prokineticins and Prokineticin Receptors
Prokineticins are a new class of chemokine-like peptides involved in a wide range of biological and pathological activities. In particular, prokineticin 2 (PK2), prokineticin receptor 1 (PKR1) and prokineticin receptor 2 (PKR2) play a central role in modulating neuroinflammatory processes. PK2 and PKRs, which are physiologically expressed at very low levels, are strongly upregulated during inflammation and regulate neuronal-glial interaction.
  • 1.1K
  • 18 Feb 2022
Topic Review
Microbiome–Gut–Mucosal–Immune–Brain Axis and Autism Spectrum Disorder
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a complex neurodevelopmental disorder characterised by deficits in social interaction and communication, as well as restricted and stereotyped interests. Due of the high prevalence of gastrointestinal disorders in individuals with ASD, researchers have investigated the gut microbiota as a potential contributor to its aetiology. The relationship between the microbiome, gut, and brain (microbiome–gut–brain axis) has been acknowledged as a key factor in modulating brain function and social behaviour, but its connection to the aetiology of ASD is not well understood.
  • 1.1K
  • 05 Jul 2023
Topic Review
Sleep Disturbances in Parkinson’s Disease
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a common multidimensional neurological disorder characterized by motor and non-motor features and is more prevalent in the elderly. Sleep disorders and cognitive disturbances are also significant characteristics of PD. Sleep is an important physiological process for normal human cognition and physical functioning. Sleep deprivation negatively impacts human physical, mental, and behavioral functions. Sleep disturbances include problems falling asleep, disturbances occurring during sleep, abnormal movements during sleep, insufficient sleep, and excessive sleep. The most recognizable and known sleep disorders, such as rapid-eye-movement behavior disorder (RBD), insomnia, excessive daytime sleepiness (EDS), restless legs syndrome (RLS), sleep-related breathing disorders (SRBDs), and circadian-rhythm-related sleep–wake disorders (CRSWDs), have been associated with PD. 
  • 1.1K
  • 24 Aug 2023
Topic Review
Carbonic Anhydrase in Cerebral Ischemia
Ischemic stroke is a leading cause of death and disability worldwide. The only pharmacological treatment available to date for cerebral ischemia is tissue plasminogen activator (t-PA) and the search for successful therapeutic strategies still remains a major challenge. The loss of cerebral blood flow leads to reduced oxygen supply and a subsequent switch to the glycolytic pathway, which leads to tissue acidification. Carbonic anhydrase (CA, EC 4.2.1.1) is the enzyme responsible for converting carbon dioxide into a protons and bicarbonate, thus contributing to pH regulation and metabolism, with many CA isoforms present in the brain. Recently, numerous studies have shed light on several classes of carbonic anhydrase inhibitor (CAI) as possible new pharmacological agents for the management of brain ischemia. 
  • 1.1K
  • 21 May 2021
Topic Review
Proteinopathy in Alzheimer’s Disease
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) result from normal daily cellular metabolism. Research conducted in the last two decades has clarified the role of ROS as secondary signaling molecules that regulate various biological and physiological processes, including proliferation, host defense, and gene expression. Furthermore, earlier reports have also indicated the role of ROS as a signal transduction mechanism.
  • 1.1K
  • 17 Aug 2021
Topic Review
Artificial Intelligence for Alzheimer’s Disease
The recent growth of open data-sharing initiatives collecting lifestyle, clinical, and biological data from Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients has provided a potentially unlimited amount of information about the disease, far exceeding the human ability to make sense of it. Integrating Big Data from multi-omics studies provides the potential to explore the pathophysiological mechanisms of the entire biological continuum of AD. In this context, Artificial Intelligence (AI) offers a wide variety of methods to analyze large and complex data in order to improve knowledge in the AD field.
  • 1.1K
  • 03 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Illicit Substances on Dopamine Receptors and Brain
Drug addiction is characterized by dysregulation of emotional processes involved in motivation and stress patterns. Social and cultural trends also affect and influence processes such as use, addiction, and relapse, as in men and women. The stages of abuse include first use, followed by escalation, addiction with subsequent withdrawal to relapse, which is a common structure for both sexes and is the same for all drugs.
  • 1.1K
  • 07 Jul 2022
Topic Review
Bioactivities of Turmeric Oil
Curcuma longa L. (syn. Curcuma domestica), commonly known as turmeric, is a perennial herb native to Asia. After curing, drying, and milling, turmeric rhizomes are usually employed as a dye, cosmetic, and food seasoning. Most pharmacological activities of turmeric have been explained by the properties of curcumin, mainly because turmeric oil has not been as extensively studied as curcuminoids. Turmeric rhizome oil (TO) is responsible for this spice’s characteristic taste and smell.
  • 1.1K
  • 16 Aug 2022
Topic Review
Effects of Melatonin on Diabetic Neuropathy and Retinopathy
Diabetes mellitus (DM) leads to complications, including neuropathy. Redox imbalance and inflammation are important components of the pathophysiology of these complications. Many studies have investigated the therapeutic potential of melatonin (MEL), an anti-inflammatory and antioxidant agent, for the specific treatment of the neural complications. In the present entry, we review studies published over the past 21 years on the therapeutic efficacy of MEL in the treatment of DM-induced neural complications. Reports suggest that there is a real prospect of using MEL as an adjuvant treatment for hypoglycemic agents.
  • 1.1K
  • 19 Apr 2022
Topic Review
Therapeutic Approaches of Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is an extremely heterogeneous disease of motor neurons that eventually leads to death. Despite impressive advances in understanding the genetic, molecular, and pathological mechanisms of the disease, the only drug approved to date by both the FDA and EMA is riluzole, with a modest effect on survival. 
  • 1.1K
  • 12 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Astrocytes in Multiple Sclerosis
In multiple sclerosis (MS), astrocytes respond to the inflammatory stimulation with a robust process of morphological, transcriptional, biochemical and functional remodeling. Recent studies exposed the detrimental and the beneficial, in part contradictory, functions of this cell population. The pivotal roles played by astrocytes make them an attractive therapeutic target. Improved understanding of astrocyte function, diversity, and the mechanisms by which they are regulated, may lead to the development of novel approaches to selectively block astrocytic detrimental responses and/or enhance their protective properties. 
  • 1.1K
  • 29 Jun 2021
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