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Topic Review
Iron Oxide Nanoparticles (IONPs)
The unique physical properties (physical identity) of iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs), their ample possibilities for surface modifications (synthetic identity), and the complex dynamics of their interaction with biological systems (biological identity) make IONPs a unique and fruitful resource for developing magnetic field-based therapeutic and diagnostic approaches to the treatment of diseases such as cancer. In this entry, we revisited the current knowledge on IONP interaction with cells of the mononuclear phagocytic system (macrophages), dendritic cells (DCs), endothelial cells (ECs), and cancer cells, correlating synthetic identity with the biological effects that IONPs trigger in these cells (biological identity). Furthermore, we thoroughly discuss current understandings of the basic molecular mechanisms and complex interactions that govern IONP biological identity, and how these traits could be used as a stepping stone for future research.
  • 4.4K
  • 28 Oct 2020
Topic Review
Snijders Blok-Campeau Syndrome
Snijders Blok-Campeau syndrome is characterized by intellectual disability, speech problems, and distinctive facial features.  
  • 4.4K
  • 23 Dec 2020
Topic Review
A Complete Solution to the Millennium Prize Problems
The seven Millennium Prize Problems, announced by the Clay Mathematics Institute in 2000, represented the highest peaks of mathematical inquiry at the turn of the century. They were considered the deepest and most fundamental questions left unanswered by the mathematics of the past. For decades, progress was made in fragments, with brilliant minds chipping away at the edges of these monolithic challenges. The resolution of these problems was not to be found in the incremental application of existing techniques, but required a paradigm shift in our understanding of logic, number, and form—a new language to describe the universe.
  • 4.4K
  • 11 Aug 2025
Topic Review
Smart Farming
Smart farming: the technological innovation adoption in agriculture requires an innovative conceptualization and management of the several resources in light of the increasingly being available data. An example of an innovative methodology and criteria capable of organizing data and exploiting such information to optimize the use of technologies and primary resources used in production processes is presented.
  • 4.4K
  • 17 Oct 2024
Topic Review
Intracardiac Nervous System
The intracardiac nervous system (IcNS), sometimes referred to as the “little brain” of the heart, is involved in modulating aspects of cardiac physiology. The IcNS is composed of neuronal and non-neuronal compartments intrinsic to the heart and includes afferent, efferent, and intra- neurons, using sympathetic, parasympathetic, and non-adrenergic, non-cholinergic neural transmitters, and forming feedback loops with the central (brain and spine) and peripheral (paravertebral ganglia) nervous systems.
  • 4.4K
  • 11 Nov 2021
Topic Review
Microneedles
Microneedles (MNs) represent micron-sized structures, consisting of a variety of materials, that have been recently emerged as physical enhances for a painless and safe transdermal delivery of drugs through the skin.
  • 4.4K
  • 02 Dec 2020
Topic Review
Mineral Characterization Using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) is a powerful tool in the domains of materials science, mining, and geology owing to its enormous potential to provide unique insight into micro and nanoscale worlds. The rapid pace of technological development requires a detailed study of minerals to a further extent to meet the unprecedented material demands of the evolving world. There are more than 5956 species of minerals known today, and the number of new identifications is evolving, with as many as 50 new types identified each year. Quantitative measurements and qualitative analyses of mineral compositions within mining ores and reservoirs have valuable importance with practical applications. Comprehensive and accurate information can be gathered for the identification of rocks and minerals, including structural characteristics and mineral composition, which can provide worthy information about pore structure and reservoir heterogeneity.
  • 4.4K
  • 29 Dec 2023
Topic Review
Chemotherapy-Induced Peripheral Neuropathy
Chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy (CIPN) is a common adverse event of several first-line chemotherapeutic agents, including platinum compounds, taxanes, vinca alkaloids, thalidomide, and bortezomib, which negatively affects the quality of life and clinical outcome.
  • 4.4K
  • 22 Feb 2021
Topic Review Peer Reviewed
Energy Storage Flywheel Rotors – Mechanical Design
Definition: Energy storage flywheel systems are mechanical devices that typically utilize an electrical machine (motor/generator unit) to convert electrical energy in mechanical energy and vice versa. Energy is stored in a fast-rotating mass known as the flywheel rotor. The rotor is subject to high centripetal forces requiring careful design, analysis, and fabrication to ensure the safe operation of the storage device.
  • 4.4K
  • 13 Apr 2022
Topic Review
Classical Liberalism
Classical liberalism is a political ideology and a branch of liberalism which advocates civil liberties under the rule of law with an emphasis on economic freedom. Closely related to economic liberalism, it developed in the early 19th century, building on ideas from the previous century as a response to urbanization and to the Industrial Revolution in Europe and the United States . Notable individuals whose ideas contributed to classical liberalism include John Locke, Jean-Baptiste Say, Thomas Robert Malthus, and David Ricardo. It drew on the classical economic ideas espoused by Adam Smith in Book One of The Wealth of Nations and on a belief in natural law, utilitarianism, and progress. The term "classical liberalism" was applied in retrospect to distinguish earlier 19th-century liberalism from the newer social liberalism.
  • 4.4K
  • 22 Nov 2022
Topic Review Peer Reviewed
Culture and COVID-19: Impact of Cross-Cultural Dimensions on Behavioral Responses
The global pandemic of COVID-19 has impacted every sphere of human life across all nations of the world. Countries adapted and responded to the crisis in different ways with varied outcomes and different degrees of success in mitigation efforts. Studies have examined institutional and policy-based responses to the pandemic. However, to gain a holistic understanding of the pandemic response strategy and its effectiveness, it is also important to understand the cultural foundations of a society driving its response behavior. Towards that end, this entry focuses on a few key cultural dimensions of difference across countries and proposes that national culture is related to the protective behavior adopted by societies during COVID-19. The cultural dimensions examined in relation to COVID-19 include the dimensions of individualism vs. collectivism, power distance, uncertainty avoidance, masculinity and femininity, and future orientation. Inferences are drawn from academic research, published data, and discernible indicators of social behavior. The entry provides pointers for each dimension of culture and proposes that cultural awareness be made an important element of policy making while responding to crises such as COVID-19. 
  • 4.4K
  • 05 Jul 2022
Topic Review
Applications of Photosynthetic Systems
       In biological and life science applications photosynthesis is an important process that involves the absorption and transformation of sunlight into chemical energy. During the photosynthesis process, the light photons are captured by the green chlorophyll pigments in their photosynthetic antennae and further funneled to the reaction center. One of the mostimportant light harvesting complexes that are highly important in the study of photosynthesis is the membrane-attached Fenna-Matthews-Olson (FMO) complex found in the green sulfur bacteria. In this review, we discuss the mathematical formulations and computational modeling of some of the light harvesting complexes including FMO. The most recent research developments in the photosynthetic light harvesting complexes are thoroughly discussed. The theoretical background related to the spectral density, quantum coherence and density functional theory (DFT) has been elaborated.Further, details about the transfer and excitation of energy in different sites of the FMO complex along with other vital photosynthetic light harvesting complexes have also been provided. In particular, we will review recent results on spectral density, quantum coherence, quantum entanglement and excitonic energies of different pigments in the light harvesting complexes. We will also discuss the issues pertinent to the highest occupied orbital (HOMO) and lowest unoccupiedorbital (LUMO) energies for all the bacteriochlorophyll utilizing the time-dependent DFT. These results would be helpful in studying the excitonic dynamics of the light harvesting complexes among different applications. Finally, we conclude this review by providing the current and potential applications in environmental science, energy, health and medicine, where such mathematical and computational studies of the photosynthesis and the light harvesting complexes can be readily integrated.
  • 4.4K
  • 26 Oct 2020
Topic Review
Rank-Size Distribution
Rank-size distribution is the distribution of size by rank, in decreasing order of size. For example, if a data set consists of items of sizes 5, 100, 5, and 8, the rank-size distribution is 100, 8, 5, 5 (ranks 1 through 4). This is also known as the rank-frequency distribution, when the source data are from a frequency distribution. These are particularly of interest when the data vary significantly in scale, such as city size or word frequency. These distributions frequently follow a power law distribution, or less well-known ones such as a stretched exponential function or parabolic fractal distribution, at least approximately for certain ranges of ranks; see below. A rank-size distribution is not a probability distribution or cumulative distribution function. Rather, it is a discrete form of a quantile function (inverse cumulative distribution) in reverse order, giving the size of the element at a given rank.
  • 4.4K
  • 31 Oct 2022
Biography
Georg Ohm
Georg Simon Ohm (16 March 1789 – 6 July 1854) was a Germany physicist and mathematician. As a school teacher, Ohm began his research with the new electrochemical cell, invented by Italian scientist Alessandro Volta. Using equipment of his own creation, Ohm found that there is a direct proportionality between the potential difference (voltage) applied across a conductor and the resultant electr
  • 4.4K
  • 28 Nov 2022
Topic Review Peer Reviewed
Reference Electrodes
A reference electrode is a half-cell (an electrode) with a stable, well-defined and highly reproducible electrode potential. A vast number of electrodes have been developed for different applications. They are briefly presented. For the common types, the advantages and drawbacks are discussed. Practical hints for daily use are provided.
  • 4.4K
  • 04 Feb 2024
Topic Review
Ursa Major
Ursa Major, often referred to as the Great Bear, is one of the most recognizable and prominent constellations in the northern celestial hemisphere. Its distinctive shape, resembling a large bear with a long tail, has captivated human imagination for millennia. At the heart of Ursa Major lies the Big Dipper, a prominent asterism formed by seven bright stars that serve as a navigational guide and cultural icon across cultures and civilizations.
  • 4.4K
  • 15 Mar 2024
Topic Review
Neural Tube Defects
Neural tube defects (NTDs) are the second most common congenital malformations of humans, characterized by impaired development of the central nervous system. Even though the etiology of most birth defects remains undetermined, genetic and environmental risk factors in the background of NTDs have been identified and extensively reported.
  • 4.4K
  • 05 May 2022
Topic Review
Surya Namaskar
Surya Namaskar (Sanskrit: सूर्यनमस्कार IAST: Sūrya Namaskāra), Salute to the Sun or Sun Salutation, is a practice in yoga as exercise incorporating a flow sequence of some twelve gracefully linked asanas. The asana sequence was first recorded as yoga in the early 20th century, though similar exercises were in use in India before that, for example among wrestlers. The basic sequence involves moving from a standing position into Downward and Upward Dog poses and then back to the standing position, but many variations are possible. The set of 12 asanas is dedicated to the solar deity Surya. In some Indian traditions, the positions are each associated with a different mantra. The precise origins of Surya Namaskar are uncertain, but the sequence was made popular in the early 20th century by Bhawanrao Shriniwasrao Pant Pratinidhi, the Rajah of Aundh, and adopted into yoga by Krishnamacharya in the Mysore Palace, where the Surya Namaskar classes, not then considered to be yoga, were held next door to his yogasala. Pioneering yoga teachers taught by Krishnamacharya, including Pattabhi Jois and B. K. S. Iyengar, taught transitions between asanas derived from Surya Namaskar to their pupils worldwide. Variant yoga sequences such as those called Chandra Namaskar (Moon Salutation) have been created based on the original sequence taught by Pant Pratinidhi.
  • 4.4K
  • 25 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Olive orchards under climate change
The olive tree (Olea europaea L.) is an ancient traditional crop in the Mediterranean Basin. In the Mediterranean region, traditional olive orchards are distinguishable by their prevailing climatic conditions. Olive trees are indeed considered one of the most suitable and best-adapted species to the Mediterranean-type climate. However, new challenges are predicted to arise from climate change, threatening this traditional crop. The Mediterranean Basin is considered a climate change “hotspot,” as future projections hint at considerable warming and drying trends. Changes in olive tree suitability have already been reported over the last few decades. In this context, climate change may become particularly challenging for olive growers.
  • 4.4K
  • 14 Jan 2021
Topic Review
Herbalism
Herbalism (also herbal medicine) is the study of botany and use of plants intended for medicinal purposes. Plants have been the basis for medical treatments through much of human history, and such traditional medicine is still widely practiced today. Modern medicine makes use of many plant-derived compounds as the basis for evidence-based pharmaceutical drugs. Although phytotherapy may apply modern standards of effectiveness testing to herbs and medicines derived from natural sources, few high-quality clinical trials and standards for purity or dosage exist. The scope of herbal medicine is sometimes extended to include fungal and bee products, as well as minerals, shells and certain animal parts. The term, phytomedicine, may also refer to the science of pathology and damage to plants, the causes thereof, their manifestations, development, dissemination, methods for maintaining plant health, and measures used to control plant diseases and their causes. Herbal medicine is sometimes also used to refer to paraherbalism or phytotherapy, which is the alternative and pseudoscientific practice of using of extracts of plant or animal origin as supposed medicines or health-promoting agents. Phytotherapy differs from plant-derived medicines in standard pharmacology because it does not isolate and standardize the compounds from a given plant believed to be biologically active. It relies on the false belief that preserving the complexity of substances from a given plant with less processing is safer and potentially more effective. There is no evidence that either condition applies. Herbal dietary supplements most often fall under this category.
  • 4.4K
  • 11 Oct 2022
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