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Topic Review
sST2 in Acute Heart Failure and COVID-19 Infection
As a member of the interleukin-1 receptor superfamily, the protein ST2 (alternative name for “interleukin-1 receptor-like 1”) presents with a transmembrane (ST2L) and soluble (sST2) isoforms. Since the discovery of interleukin-33 (IL-33) in 2005 as the ST2L ligand, the molecule has been deeply considered in inflammatory conditions, fibroproliferative diseases, autoimmune diseases, trauma, sepsis, and most recently and significantly in pulmonary and cardiovascular diseases. 
  • 1.0K
  • 11 Aug 2022
Topic Review
Studying Epigenetics of Cardiovascular Diseases on Chip Guide
Epigenetics is defined as the study of inheritable changes in the gene expressions and phenotypes that occurs without altering the normal DNA sequence. These changes are mainly due to an alteration in chromatin or its packaging, which changes the DNA accessibility. DNA methylation, histone modification, and noncoding or microRNAs can best explain the mechanism of epigenetics. There are various DNA methylated enzymes, histone-modifying enzymes, and microRNAs involved in the cause of various CVDs (cardiovascular diseases) such as cardiac hypertrophy, heart failure, and hypertension. Moreover, various CVD risk factors such as diabetes mellitus, hypoxia, aging, dyslipidemia, and their epigenetics are also discussed together with CVDs such as CHD (coronary heart disease) and PAH (pulmonary arterial hypertension). Furthermore, different techniques involved in epigenetic chromatin mapping are explained.
  • 1.0K
  • 13 Jul 2022
Topic Review
SGLT2 Inhibitors in Treatment of Type 2 Diabetes
Sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors are a novel class of oral hypoglycemic agents which increase urinary glucose excretion by suppressing glucose reabsorption at the proximal tubule in the kidney. SGLT2 inhibitors lower glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c) by 0.6–0.8% (6–8 mmol/mol) without increasing the risk of hypoglycemia and induce weight loss and improve various metabolic parameters including blood pressure, lipid profile and hyperuricemia.
  • 1.0K
  • 15 Jun 2022
Topic Review
Genetic Mutations Associated Myocardial Bridges
Myocardial bridging (MB) is a congenital coronary artery anomaly that has limited molecular disease state characterization. Though a large portion of individuals may be asymptomatic, the myocardial ischemia caused by this anomaly can lead to angina, acute coronary syndrome, coronary artery disease, and sudden cardiac death in patients.
  • 1.0K
  • 11 Mar 2024
Topic Review
Heart Disease and Metabolic Steatosis
The liver-heart axis is a growing field of interest owing to rising evidence of complex bidirectional interplay between the two organs. Recent data suggest non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) has a significant, independent association with a wide spectrum of structural and functional cardiac diseases, and seems to worsen cardiovascular disease (CVD) prognosis.
  • 1.0K
  • 28 Apr 2021
Topic Review
Cardiorenal Protection with Sodium-Glucose Co-Transporter 2 Inhibitors
Sodium-glucose co-transporter 2 (SGLT2) is a family of glucose transporter proteins localized in the proximal tubule of the nephron, responsible for the majority of filtered glucose and sodium reabsorption, and SGLT2 inhibitors (SGLT2-Is) are novel drugs for the treatment of T2DM and heart failure.
  • 1.0K
  • 18 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Three-Dimensional Transesophageal Echocardiography in Mitral Prosthetic Valve Endocarditis
Despite advances in diagnosis, imaging methods, and medical and surgical interventions, prosthetic valve endocarditis (PVE) remains an extremely serious and potentially fatal complication of heart valve surgery. Characteristic changes of PVE are more difficult to detect by transthoracic echocardiography (TTE) than those involving the native valve.
  • 1.0K
  • 24 Jan 2022
Topic Review
RBM20
The RBM20 gene encodes the muscle-specific splicing factor RNA-binding motif 20, a regulator of heart-specific alternative splicing. Nearly 40 potentially deleterious variants in RBM20 have been reported in the last ten years, being found to be associated with highly arrhythmogenic events in familial dilated cardiomyopathy. Frequently, malignant arrhythmias can be a primary manifestation of disease. The early recognition of arrhythmic genotypes is crucial in avoiding lethal episodes, as it may have an impact on the adoption of personalized preventive measures.
  • 1.0K
  • 29 Mar 2021
Topic Review
Post-Acute Sequelae of COVID-19 and Cardiovascular Autonomic Dysfunction
“Post-acute sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 infection” (PASC), otherwise referred to as “long COVID” or “long-haul COVID”, refers to persistent and prolonged effects after acute COVID-19 and describes the persistence of symptoms or development of sequelae beyond 3 weeks from the onset of acute symptoms of SARS-CoV-2 infection. Symptoms commonly experienced by PASC patients include fatigue, palpitations, chest pain, dyspnea, reduced exercise tolerance, and “brain fog”. Additionally, symptoms of orthostatic intolerance and syncope suggest the involvement of the autonomic nervous system.
  • 1.0K
  • 15 Feb 2022
Topic Review
Haemoptysis
Pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) is a rare, heterogeneous disease of the pulmonary vasculature, haemodynamically defined by a mean pulmonary arterial pressure (mPAP) >20 mmHg, a normal pulmonary artery wedge pressure ≤15 mmHg and elevated pulmonary vascular resistance ≥3 Wood units. Congenital heart disease (CHD) is frequently complicated by PAH, including four individual groups with shared features; Eisenmenger syndrome (ES), congenital systemic to pulmonary shunts, PAH associated with coincidental or small defects, and PAH encountered in patients with repaired congenital defects. Spontaneous bleeding events are common in PAH-CHD and usually minor and self-limiting (e.g., dental bleeding, epistaxis, easy bruising, menorrhagia). Haemoptysis is one of the most perilous major bleeding manifestations in the clinical course of PAH-CHD and can be life-threatening. 
  • 1.0K
  • 18 Feb 2022
Topic Review
The Complex Relation between Atrial Cardiomyopathy and Thrombogenesis
Heart disease, as well as systemic metabolic alterations, can leave a ‘fingerprint’ of structural and functional changes in the atrial myocardium, leading to the onset of atrial cardiomyopathy. As demonstrated in various animal models, some of these changes, such as fibrosis, cardiomyocyte hypertrophy and fatty infiltration, can increase vulnerability to atrial fibrillation (AF), the most relevant manifestation of atrial cardiomyopathy in clinical practice. Atrial cardiomyopathy accompanying AF is associated with thromboembolic events, such as stroke. The interaction between AF and stroke appears to be far more complicated than initially believed. AF and stroke share many risk factors whose underlying pathological processes can reinforce the development and progression of both cardiovascular conditions. 
  • 1.0K
  • 01 Dec 2022
Topic Review
FABPs in Cardiovascular Diseases
Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) remain a global pandemic and leading cause of deaths worldwide. While several guidelines have been developed to control the development of CVDs, its prevalence keeps on increasing until this day. Cardiovascular risk factors, such as reduced exercises and high fat or glucose diets, culminate in the development of the metabolic syndrome and eventually atherosclerosis, which is driven by high blood lipid and cholesterol levels, and by endothelial dysfunction. Late complications of atherosclerosis give rise to serious clinical cardiovascular manifestations such as myocardial infarction and hypertension. Therefore, endothelial functions and the lipid metabolism play critical roles in the pathogenesis of CVDs. Fatty acid-binding proteins are a family of intracellular proteins expressed in many cell types known mainly for their interaction with and tracking of cellular lipids. The roles of a number of isoforms in this family have been implicated in lipid metabolic homeostasis, but their influence on endothelial function and vascular homeostasis remain largely unknown. This entry’s purpose is to update fundamentals about the connection between cardiovascular disease, metabolism, endothelial function, and mainly the roles of fatty acid-binding proteins.
  • 1.0K
  • 19 Nov 2020
Topic Review
Iron Supplementation in Heart Failure
Iron deficiency is a significant comorbidity of heart failure (HF), defined as the inability of the myocardium to provide sufficient blood flow. However, iron deficiency remains insufficiently detected. Iron-deficiency anemia, defined as a decrease in hemoglobin caused by iron deficiency, is a late consequence of iron deficiency, and the symptoms of iron deficiency, which are not specific, are often confused with those of HF or comorbidities. HF patients with iron deficiency are often rehospitalized and present reduced survival. The correction of iron deficiency in HF patients is associated with improved functional capacity, quality of life, and rehospitalization rates. Because of the inflammation associated with chronic HF, which complicates the picture of nutritional deficiency, only the parenteral route can bypass the tissue sequestration of iron and the inhibition of intestinal iron absorption. Given the negative impact of iron deficiency on HF progression, the frequency and financial implications of rehospitalizations due to decompensation episodes, and the efficacy of this supplementation, screening for this frequent comorbidity should be part of routine testing in all HF patients.
  • 1.0K
  • 18 Aug 2022
Topic Review
Prostaglandin E2 Signaling in Pulmonary Hypertension
Mild-to-moderate pulmonary hypertension (PH) is a common complication of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). As another well-known and extensively researched prostaglandins, prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) and its downstream signaling have been found to play an important role in various biological processes. Emerging evidence has revealed that PGE2 and its receptors (i.e., EP1–4) are involved in the regulation of pulmonary vascular homeostasis and remodeling. 
  • 1.0K
  • 01 Dec 2023
Topic Review
Pathophysiology of  Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease
Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD) is an inherited kidney disease which leads to progressive kidney failure. About 5–10% of patients requiring renal replacement therapy are affected by ADPKD. Cardiovascular diseases are the main causes of morbidity and mortality in these patients with ADPKD; arterial hypertension (AH) is the first symptom with a very early onset. Anyway, some other cardiovascular abnormalities have been reported in ADPKD regardless of the presence of AH.
  • 1.0K
  • 29 Jun 2023
Topic Review
Clinical Molecular Imaging for Atherosclerotic Plaque
Atherosclerosis is a well-known disease leading to cardiovascular events, including myocardial infarction and ischemic stroke. These conditions lead to a high mortality rate, which explains the interest in their prevention, early detection, and treatment. Molecular imaging is able to shed light on the basic pathophysiological processes, such as inflammation, that cause the progression and instability of plaque.
  • 1.0K
  • 15 Nov 2021
Topic Review
Personalized Cell Therapy for PAD
Stem/progenitor cell transplantation is a potential novel therapeutic strategy to induce angiogenesis in ischemic tissue, which can prevent major amputation in patients with advanced peripheral artery disease (PAD). Some studies have indicated that the response to stem cell therapy varies among patients, even in those harboring limited risk factors.
  • 1.0K
  • 10 Dec 2021
Topic Review Video
Cardiac Power Hemodynamic Measurements in Cardiovascular Conditions
Despite numerous advancements in prevention, diagnosis and treatment, cardiovascular disease has remained the leading cause of mortality globally for the past. Part of the explanation for this trend is persistent difficulty in determining the severity of cardiac conditions in order to allow for the deployment of prompt therapies.  In heart failure (HF) patients showing cardiac power index (CPI) and cardiac power output (CPO) as valuable tools to assess cardiac function in the acute setting; and, additionally, CPO was found to be an essential tool in patients with critical cardiac illness (CCI), as the literature showed that CPO was statistically correlated with mortality. Cardiac power and the derived measures obtained from this relatively easily obtained variable can allow for essential estimations of prognostic outcomes in cardiac patients.
  • 1.0K
  • 07 Dec 2022
Topic Review
MicroRNAs in Myocarditis
Myocarditis is an inflammatory disease of the heart with a viral infection as the most common cause. It affects most commonly young adults. Although endomyocardial biopsy and cardiac magnetic resonance are used in the diagnosis, neither of them demonstrates all the required qualities. There is a clear need for a non-invasive, generally available diagnostic tool that will still remain highly specific and sensitive. These requirements could be possibly met by microribonucleic acids (miRNAs), which are small, non-coding RNA molecules that regulate many fundamental cell functions. They can be isolated from cells, tissues, or body fluids. 
  • 1.0K
  • 29 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Biomarkers in Cardiovascular Disease
Atherosclerosis and its consequences are the leading cause of mortality in the world.  For this reason, we have reviewed atherosclerosis biomarkers and selected the most promising ones. We focused mainly on biomarkers related to inflammation and oxidative stress, such as the highly sensitive C-reactive protein (hs-CRP), interleukin 6 (IL-6), and lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2 (Lp-PLA2). The microRNA (miRNA) and the usefulness of the bone mineralization, glucose, and lipid metabolism marker osteocalcin (OC) were also reviewed.
  • 1.0K
  • 21 Jul 2021
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