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Topic Review
Biomedical Applications of MXenes
MXenes have emerged as a newer class of 2D materials that produce metallic conductivity upon interaction with hydrophilic species, and their delamination affords monolayer nanoplatelets of a thickness of about one nm and a side size in the micrometer range. Delaminated MXene has a high aspect ratio, making it an alluring nanofiller for multifunctional polymer nanocomposites. Moreover, MXenes are of special relevance in hydrogel-based applications because of their outstanding mechanical strength, extraordinary hydrophilicity and a distinct surface chemistry, which adds a new level of adaptability.
  • 1.4K
  • 15 Apr 2022
Topic Review
Phenolic Compounds of Hop Strobile Extracts
Hop (Humulus lupulus Linnaeus), a perennial plant belonging to the Cannabaceae family, has become a widely grown agricultural plant because it is used for providing bitterness and aroma to beer. Hop originated in Europe and west Asia, and are cultivated in the United States, Germany, Czech Republic, and England. Historically, the flower extracts of hop, commonly known as hops, have been used in traditional medicine for treating human health because of their sedative, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, and antidiuretic properties. Hops are a dioecious species and unfertilized female inflorescence are commonly called cones (or strobiles). These cones are rich in unique phenolic compounds such as prenylated flavonoids, humulones (α-acids) and lupulones (β-acids).
  • 1.4K
  • 15 Feb 2022
Topic Review
Characteristics of Collagen
Collagen (CLG) is a structural protein composed of amino acids that create collagen fibers, characterized by exceptional strength and high elasticity. This protein is composed of three left-handed α polypeptides that wind around themselves and their axis to form a right-handed superhelix. Its structure varies depending on its functions and place of occurrence. CLG is one of the most important proteins in the human body because it is responsible for maintaining the appropriate structure of tissues and organs and constitutes as much as one-third of the total body protein mass. It occurs, among the main organs in the body that provide appropriate elasticity and strength. It is also an essential building block of the skin; without CLG, it would not be able to perform its functions properly.
  • 1.4K
  • 14 Mar 2024
Topic Review
Electrospun Nanofibers for Skin Tissue Engineering
Surface modification of electrospun products has been an attractive method for increasing multifunctionality and biocompatibility properties. 
  • 1.4K
  • 29 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Enzymes in/on Metal-Organic Framework Materials
The industrial use of enzymes generally necessitates their immobilization onto solid supports. The well-known high affinity of enzymes for metal-organic framework (MOF) materials, together with the great versatility of MOFs in terms of structure, composition, functionalization and synthetic approaches, has led the scientific community to develop very different strategies for the immobilization of enzymes in/on MOFs. This review focuses on one of these strategies, namely, the one-pot enzyme immobilization within sustainable MOFs, which is particularly enticing as the resultant biocomposite Enzyme@MOFs have the potential to be: (i) prepared in situ, that is, in just one step; (ii) may be synthesized under sustainable conditions: with water as the sole solvent at room temperature with moderate pHs, etc.; (iii) are able to retain high enzyme loading; (iv) have negligibleprotein leaching; and (v) give enzymatic activities approaching that given by the corresponding free enzymes. Moreover, this methodology seems to be near-universal, as success has been achieved with different MOFs, with different enzymes and for different applications. So far, the metal ions forming the MOF materials have been chosen according to their low price, low toxicity and, of course, their possibility for generating MOFs at room temperature in water, in order to close the cycle of economic, environmental and energy sustainability in the synthesis, application and disposal life cycle.
  • 1.4K
  • 16 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Oxygen Reduction Reaction Catalysts Derived from Biopolymers
Due to the limited reaction rate of the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR), it is considered as a limiting factor in the performance of fuel cells and metal-air batteries. Platinum is considered the benchmark catalyst for ORR; however, the scarcity of platinum, its high price, the drift phenomenon, its insufficient durability, and its susceptibility to gas poisoning are the reasons for the constant search for new ORR catalysts. Carbon-based catalysts show exceptional promise in this respect considering economic profitability and activity, and, in addition, they have favorable conductivity and often a large specific surface area.
  • 1.4K
  • 13 Feb 2023
Topic Review
Biopolymers Produced by Lactic Acid Bacteria
A severe and well-known threat to the environment, the non-biodegradability of plastics obliges different stakeholders to find legislative and technical solutions for producing valuable polymers which are biodegradable and also exhibit better characteristics for packaging products. Microorganisms are recognized as exciting sources for the production of biopolymers with applications in the food industry, package production, and several other fields. Ubiquitous organisms, lactic acid bacteria (LAB) are well studied for the production of exopolysaccharides (EPS), but much less as producers of polylactic acid (PLA) and polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs). Based on their good biodegradability feature, as well as the possibility to be obtained from cheap biomass, PLA and PHAs polymers currently receive increased attention from both research and industry.
  • 1.4K
  • 12 Apr 2023
Topic Review
Zirconia
Zirconia is one of the indirect metal-free restorations used in dental medicine.
  • 1.4K
  • 01 Jun 2021
Topic Review
Natural Antiviral Polymers
Natural polymers or biopolymers are classified into polysaccharides, polypeptides (proteins), and nucleic acid polymers (polynucleotides). Natural polymers as components of living systems are derived from plants, animals, and microorganisms.
  • 1.4K
  • 05 May 2022
Topic Review
Keratin Biomembranes
Difficulties in obtaining human nails that are large enough for examining the penetration of drug formulations led to produce keratin films regenerated from human hair. The structure, surface morphology, chemical characterization and thermal stability of the films were characterized and were compared to those of human nail, hair and bovine hoof samples using SDS-electrophoresis, SEM, XRD, FTIR and TGA. The structure of the obtained films was found to be closer to human nails than to hair or bovine hooves. The keratin films were infected with Trichophyton rubrum and were proven to be appropriate for serving as a model for studying onychomycosis.
  • 1.4K
  • 30 Oct 2020
Topic Review
Microneedles in Drug Delivery
In recent years, an innovative transdermal delivery technology has attracted great interest for its ability to distribute therapeutics and cosmeceuticals for several applications, including vaccines, drugs, and biomolecules for skin-related problems. The advantages of microneedle patch technology have been extensively evaluated in the latest literature; hence, the academic publications in this area are rising exponentially. 
  • 1.4K
  • 29 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Stimuli-Responsive Hydrogels in Drug Delivery
Stimuli-responsive hydrogels, also known as smart hydrogels, exhibit responsiveness to diverse external stimuli. These gels can undergo reversible or irreversible changes in physical or chemical properties upon exposure to stimuli, enabling a highly controllable drug release pattern. This capability contributes to achieving precise drug administration and enhancing treatment effectiveness and safety.
  • 1.4K
  • 24 Oct 2023
Topic Review
Chitosan as a Biomaterial
Chitosan remarkable properties have aroused the interest of applying this material in several biomedical applications, such as tissue engineering, wound dressing, drug delivery, and cancer treatment, what has aroused the interest of this review to gather the state-of-the-art concerning this polysaccharide when used as a biomaterial, providing information about its characteristics, chemical modifications, and applications.
  • 1.4K
  • 25 Nov 2020
Topic Review
Application and Development of Biochar in Ironmaking Production
The concept of green, low-carbon and clean energy consumption has been deeply rooted in the hearts of the people, and countries have actively advocated the use of new energy. In the face of problems such as resource shortage and environmental pollution, scholars began to explore the use of new fuels instead of coal for production. Biomass resources have the characteristics of being renewable and carbon neutral and having large output. As an energy utilization, it is helpful to promote the transformation of the energy structure in various countries. Applying it to ironmaking production is not only conducive to energy conservation and emission reduction in the ironmaking process but also can achieve efficient utilization of crop waste. 
  • 1.4K
  • 12 Nov 2023
Topic Review
Imine-Based Adaptive Covalent Chemistry
The imine bond, also referred to as the Schiff base, is one of the reversible covalent bonds that can participate in both associative and dissociative reactions. This opens up possibilities for mechanical and chemical recycling as well as self-healing.
  • 1.4K
  • 12 Dec 2023
Topic Review
Calcium Silicate-Based Materials - Antimicrobial
Endodontic materials have significantly improved dental treatment techniques in several aspects as they can be used for vital pulp treatments, as temporary root canal medication, in definitive fillings, in apical surgeries, and for regenerative procedures. Calcium silicate-based cement is a class of dental material that is used in Endodontics in direct contact with the dental structures, connective tissue, and bone. Because the material interacts with biological tissues and stimulates biomineralization processes, its properties are of major importance. The main challenge in endodontic treatments is the elimination of biofilms that are present in the root canal system anatomical complexities, as it remains even after chemical-mechanical preparation and disinfection procedures. Thus, an additional challenge for these biomaterials is to exert antimicrobial activity while maintaining their biological properties in parallel.
  • 1.4K
  • 29 Jul 2021
Topic Review
Applications of Transglutaminase
Stabilization and reusability of enzyme transglutaminase (TGM) are important goals for the enzymatic process since immobilizing TGM plays an important role in different technologies and industries. TGM can be used in many applications. Enzyme TGM gained much attention due mainly to its potential for industrial applications. In their earlier uses, TGMs focused mostly on the cheesemaking processes, mainly improving the characteristics of the cheese itself. Later on, beverage properties were being improved by decreasing viscosity and solubility increases, as well as reduction in yoghurt syneresis. Therefore, the majority of investigations of applying TGMs in different processes focused mostly on improving the functional properties of proteins that can be utilized to develop improved food ingredients, such as crosslinked milk powders and high-added food products. Such improvements were also possible due to the different immobilization techniques of TGM.
  • 1.4K
  • 16 Aug 2023
Topic Review Peer Reviewed
Biorefinery Based on Multiple Raw Materials and Wastes for the Production of Energy: A Proposal Tailored to Southwestern Europe
In this entry, the possibility of the implementation of a biorefinery based on multiple raw materials (from agricultural wastes, vegetable oils, etc.) is covered, pointing out the available technology to interconnect different processes so that the atom economy of the process is as high as possible, reducing the environmental impact and improving the efficiency of the energy or products obtained. For this purpose, this model is based on previous works published in the literature. The role of biorefineries is becoming more and more important in the current environmental scenario, as there is a global concern about different environmental issues such as climate change due to GHG emissions, among others. In this sense, a biorefinery presents several advantages such as the use of natural raw materials or wastes, with high atom economy values (that is, all the products are valorized and not released to the environment). As a consequence, the concept of a biorefinery perfectly fits with the Sustainable Development Goals, contributing to the sustainable growth of different regions or countries, regardless of their stage of development. The aim of this entry is the proposal of a biorefinery based on multiple raw materials, using different technologies such as transesterification to produce both biodiesel and biolubricants, steam reforming to produce hydrogen from glycerol or biogas, hydrothermal carbonization of sewage sludge to produce hydrochar, etc. As a result, these technologies have potential for the possible implementation of this biorefinery at the industrial scale, with high conversion and efficiency for most processes included in this biorefinery. However, there are some challenges like the requirement of the further technological development of certain processes. In conclusion, the proposed biorefinery offers a wide range of possibilities to enhance the production of energy and materials (hydrogen, biodiesel, biolubricants, different biofuels, hydrochar, etc.) through green technologies, being an alternative for petrol-based refineries.
  • 1.4K
  • 30 Sep 2024
Topic Review
Cyclo- and Polyphosphazenes for Biomedical Applications
Cyclic and polyphosphazenes are extremely interesting and versatile substrates characterized by the presence of -P=N- repeating units. The chlorine atoms on the P atoms in the starting materials can be easily substituted with a variety of organic substituents, thus giving rise to a huge number of new materials for industrial applications. A wide variety of new phosphazene systems, either trimeric or polymeric, have been developed as biomaterials in view of different applications. The materials to apply in biomedical applications should be biocompatible.
  • 1.4K
  • 09 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Skeletal Muscle Gene Delivery
Since Jon A. Wolff found skeletal muscle cells being able to express foreign genes and Russell J. Mumper increased the gene transfection efficiency into the myocytes by adding polymers, skeletal muscles have become a potential gene delivery and expression target. Different methods have been developing to deliver transgene into skeletal muscles. Among them, viral vectors may achieve potent gene delivery efficiency. Therefore, non-viral biomaterial-mediated methods with reliable biocompatibility are promising tools for intramuscular gene delivery in situ. A series of advanced non-viral gene delivery materials and related methods have been reported, such as polymers, liposomes, cell penetrating peptides, as well as physical delivery methods.
  • 1.4K
  • 25 Nov 2022
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