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Topic Review
Antibiotic Misuse
Antibiotic misuse, sometimes called antibiotic abuse or antibiotic overuse, refers to the misuse or overuse of antibiotics, with potentially serious effects on health. It is a contributing factor to the development of antibiotic resistance, including the creation of multidrug-resistant bacteria, informally called "super bugs": relatively harmless bacteria (such as staphylococcus, enterococcus and acinetobacter) can develop resistance to multiple antibiotics and cause life-threatening infections.
  • 1.8K
  • 21 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Endoscopic Ultrasound for Esophageal Varices
Esophageal varices are caused by the development of collateral circulation in the esophagus as a result of portal hypertension. It is important to administer appropriate preventive treatment because bleeding varices can be fatal. Esophageal varices have complex and diverse hemodynamics, and there are various variations for each case. Endoscopic ultrasound (EUS) can estimate the hemodynamics of each case. Therefore, observation by EUS in esophageal varices provides useful information, such as safe and effective treatment selection, prediction of recurrence, and appropriate follow-up after treatment. Although treatment for the esophagogastric varices can be performed without EUS imaging, understanding the local hemodynamics of the varices using EUS prior to treatment will lead to more safe and effective treatment. EUS observation is an indispensable tool for thorough variceal care.
  • 1.8K
  • 08 Dec 2020
Topic Review
Melatonin
Melatonin, the nocturnally released pineal hormone, has attracted great attention due to its pleiotropic roles. Although its major role is the regulation of the circadian rhythm, this indoleamine engages in multiple mechanisms, including neurogenesis, antioxidation, and inflammatory responses. Apart from its versatility, this molecule has also gained a reputation as being potentially tumor suppressive, espe-cially in hormone-dependent cancers . Melatonin is able to selectively neutralize the estrogenic effects on the breast. The oncostatic roles of melatonin are based on its diverse effects, including its antioxidative properties, apoptosis induction, and an-ticancer immunity . Interestingly, melatonin is able to protect normal cells from the cytotoxicity accompanied by ionizing radiation (IR). This non-targeted effect fol-lowing IR is alleviated via melatonin-mediated regulation of prostaglandins, Toll-like receptors (TLRs), and transcription factors . Additionally, melatonin has been proposed to enhance the therapeutic efficacy of IR, suggesting that this hormone could be a potential radiosensitizer . The radiosensitization of breast cancer cells by mel-atonin is mediated through reduced cell proliferation, the facilitation of cell cycle ar-rest, downregulated DNA repair, and increased p53 mRNA levels .
  • 1.8K
  • 12 Jan 2021
Topic Review
Wearable Point-of-Care Devices
Personalized point-of-care testing (POCT) devices, such as wearable sensors, enable quick access to health monitoring without the use of complex instruments. Wearable sensors are gaining popularity owing to their ability to offer regular and continuous monitoring of physiological data by dynamic, non-invasive assessments of biomarkers in biofluids such as tear, sweat, interstitial fluid and saliva. 
  • 1.8K
  • 09 May 2023
Topic Review
Growth and Puberty in IBD
Inflammatory bowel diseases are characterized also by retarded growth and delayed puberty. The underlying mechanism of these and other extra-intestinal manifestations are partially known: the main hypotheses are malnutrition and inflammatory response.
  • 1.8K
  • 06 Nov 2020
Topic Review
Timeline of Typhus
This is a timeline of typhus, describing major events such as epidemics and key medical developments.
  • 1.8K
  • 09 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Oral Glucose Tolerance Test
The oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) has been the mainstay for diagnosing gestational diabetes for decades. However, this test is cumbersome, deeply flawed, and has reduced reproducibility. In this review, we explore a history of the OGTT, its reproducibility, and the many factors that can impact its results with an emphasis on pregnancy.
  • 1.8K
  • 02 Feb 2021
Topic Review
Treatment Emergent Sexual Dysfunction
Antipsychotic medication can be often associated with sexual dysfunction (SD). Given its inti-mate nature, treatment emergent sexual dysfunction (TESD) remains underestimated in clinical practice. SD may cause diverse clinical alterations, such as low libido, difficulties in ejacu-lation, difficulties reaching orgasm, erection and vaginal lubrication, as well as men-strual alterations or gynecomastia. These alterations are mostly reversible with treatment discontinuation, except for priapism, which can require surgical interven-tion in some cases.
  • 1.8K
  • 29 Apr 2021
Topic Review
Black Piedra
Piedraia hortae is a superficial fungus that exists in the soils of tropical and subtropical environments and affects both sexes of all ages. The fungus grows very slowly, forming dark hyphae, which contain chlamydoconidia cells and black colonies when grown on agar. Piedraia hortae is a dermatophyte and causes a superficial fungal infection known as black piedra, which causes the formation of black nodules on the hair shaft and leads to progressive weakening of the hair. The infection usually infects hairs on the scalp and beard, but other varieties tend to grow on pubic hairs. The infection is usually treated with cutting or shaving of the hair and followed by the application of anti-fungal and topical agents. The fungus is used for cosmetic purposes to darken hair in some societies as a symbol of attractiveness.
  • 1.8K
  • 18 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Primary Polydipsia
Primary polydipsia, or psychogenic polydipsia, is a form of polydipsia characterised by excessive fluid intake in the absence of physiological stimuli to drink. Psychogenic polydipsia which is caused by psychiatric disorders, often schizophrenia, is often accompanied by the sensation of dry mouth. Some forms of polydipsia are explicitly non-psychogenic. Primary polydipsia is a diagnosis of exclusion.
  • 1.8K
  • 22 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Antibiotics in Poultry Farming
Antibiotics in poultry farming is the controversial prophylactic use of antibiotics in the poultry farming industry in the USA. This does not represent the position in other countries. Antibiotics have been applied in mass quantities since 1951 in the USA, when its Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved their use. Three years prior to the FDA's approval, scientists were investigating a phenomenon in which chickens who were rooting through bacteria-rich manure were displaying signs of greater health than those who did not. Through testing, it was discovered that chickens who were fed a variety of vitamin B12 manufactured with the residue of a certain antibiotic grew 50 percent faster than those chickens who were fed B12 manufactured from a different source. Further testing confirmed that use of antibiotics did improve the health of the chickens, resulting in the chickens laying more eggs and experiencing lower mortality rates and less illness. Upon this discovery, farmers transitioned from expensive animal proteins to comparatively inexpensive antibiotics and B12. Chickens were now reaching their market weight at a much faster rate and at a lower cost. With a growing population and greater demand on the farmers, antibiotics appeared to be an ideal and cost-effective way to increase the output of poultry. Since this discovery, antibiotics have been routinely used in poultry production, but more recently have been the topic of debate secondary to the fear of bacterial antibiotic resistance.
  • 1.8K
  • 16 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Poliomyelitis Eradication
Poliomyelitis eradication refers to a permanent elimination of all cases of poliomyelitis (polio) infection around the world. A public health effort to this end began in 1988, led by the World Health Organization (WHO), the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) and the Rotary Foundation. These organizations, along with the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and The Gates Foundation, have spearheaded the campaign through the Global Polio Eradication Initiative (GPEI), which helps to coordinate vaccination campaigns, environmental monitoring, evaluation of possible polio cases and logistics. Successful eradication of infectious diseases has been achieved twice before, with smallpox and rinderpest. Prevention of disease spread is accomplished by vaccination. There are two kinds of polio vaccine—oral polio vaccine (OPV), which uses weakened poliovirus, and inactivated polio vaccine (IPV), which is injected. The OPV is less expensive and easier to administer, and can spread immunity beyond the person vaccinated, creating contact immunity. It has been the predominant vaccine used. However, under conditions of long-term vaccine virus circulation in under-vaccinated populations, mutations can reactivate the virus to produce a polio-inducing strain, while the OPV can also, in rare circumstances, induce polio or persistent asymptomatic infection in vaccinated individuals, particularly those that are immunodeficient. Being inactivated, the IPV is free of these risks but does not induce contact immunity. IPV is more costly and the logistics of delivery are more challenging. The 22 diagnosed wild polio virus (WPV) cases worldwide in 2017[needs update] represented a 97% reduction from the 719 diagnosed cases in 2000 and a 99.99% reduction from the estimated 350,000 cases when the eradication effort began in 1988. Of the three strains of polio virus, the last recorded wild case caused by type 2 (WPV2) was in 1999, and WPV2 was declared eradicated in 2015. Type 3 (WPV3) is last known to have caused polio on 11 November 2012, with all wild-virus cases since that date being due to type 1 (WPV1). All three types are represented among the periodic cases arising from mutated oral vaccine strains, so-called circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus (cVDPV). India is the latest country to have officially stopped endemic transmission of polio, with its last reported case in 2011. Three countries remain where the disease is endemic—Afghanistan, Pakistan and Nigeria.
  • 1.8K
  • 20 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Anatomy of the Human Nose
The visible part of the human nose is the protruding part of the face that bears the nostrils. The shape of the nose is determined by the ethmoid bone and the nasal septum, which consists mostly of cartilage and which separates the nostrils. On average the nose of a male is larger than that of a female. The nasal root is the top of the nose, forming an indentation at the suture where the nasal bones meet the nasal part of the frontal bone. The anterior nasal spine is the thin projection of bone at the midline on the lower nasal margin, holding the cartilaginous center of the nose. Adult humans have nasal hair in the nostrils.
  • 1.8K
  • 01 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Residency
Residency or postgraduate training is specifically a stage of graduate medical education. It refers to a qualified physician (one who holds the degree of MD, DO, MBBS, MBChB), dentist (DDS or DMD) or podiatrist (DPM) who practices medicine, dentistry, or podiatry, respectively, usually in a hospital or clinic, under the direct or indirect supervision of a senior medical clinician registered in that specialty such as an attending physician or consultant. In many jurisdictions, successful completion of such training is a requirement in order to obtain an unrestricted license to practice medicine, and in particular a license to practice a chosen specialty. In the meantime they practice "on" the license of their supervising physician. An individual engaged in such training may be referred to as a resident, registrar or trainee depending on the jurisdiction. Residency training may be followed by fellowship or sub-specialty training. Whereas medical school teaches physicians a broad range of medical knowledge, basic clinical skills, and supervised experience practicing medicine in a variety of fields, medical residency gives in-depth training within a specific branch of medicine.
  • 1.8K
  • 06 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Stem Cells Regenerating Craniofacial Skeleton
The craniofacial region comprises the most complex and intricate anatomical structures in the human body. As a result of developmental defects, traumatic injury, or neoplastic tissue formation, the functional and aesthetic intricacies of the face and cranium are often disrupted. While reconstructive techniques have long been innovated in this field, there are crucial limitations to the surgical restoration of craniomaxillofacial form and function. Fortunately, the rise of regenerative medicine and surgery has expanded the possibilities for patients affected with hard and soft tissue deficits, allowing for the controlled engineering and regeneration of patient-specific defects. In particular, stem cell therapy has emerged in recent years as an adjuvant treatment for the targeted regeneration of craniomaxillofacial structures.
  • 1.8K
  • 21 Oct 2020
Topic Review
Berberine
Berberine is a plant metabolite belonging to the group of isoquinoline alkaloids with strong biological and pharmacological activity. Currently, berberine is receiving considerable interest due to its anticancer activity based on many biochemical pathways, especially its proapoptotic and anti-inflammatory activity. Nonetheless its influence on metabolic disorders and related diseases seems to be equally important and promising. 
  • 1.7K
  • 23 Nov 2020
Topic Review
Physical Dependence
Physical dependence is a physical condition caused by chronic use of a tolerance-forming drug, in which abrupt or gradual drug withdrawal causes unpleasant physical symptoms. Physical dependence can develop from low-dose therapeutic use of certain medications such as benzodiazepines, opioids, antiepileptics and antidepressants, as well as the recreational misuse of drugs such as alcohol, opioids and benzodiazepines. The higher the dose used, the greater the duration of use, and the earlier age use began are predictive of worsened physical dependence and thus more severe withdrawal syndromes. Acute withdrawal syndromes can last days, weeks or months. Protracted withdrawal syndrome, also known as post-acute-withdrawal syndrome or "PAWS", is a low-grade continuation of some of the symptoms of acute withdrawal, typically in a remitting-relapsing pattern, often resulting in relapse and prolonged disability of a degree to preclude the possibility of lawful employment. Protracted withdrawal syndrome can last for months, years, or depending on individual factors, indefinitely. Protracted withdrawal syndrome is noted to be most often caused by benzodiazepines. To dispel the popular misassociation with addiction, physical dependence to medications is sometimes compared to dependence on insulin by persons with diabetes.
  • 1.7K
  • 19 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Low-Functioning Autism
Low-functioning autism (LFA) is autism with low functioning levels. Symptoms may include impaired social communications or interactions, bizarre behavior, and lack of social or emotional reciprocity. Sleep problems, aggressiveness, and self-injurious behavior are also possible consequences. LFA is not a recognized diagnosis in the DSM-5 or ICD-10, neither of which subdivides autism based on intellectual capabilities. Synonyms include Kanner's syndrome, Kannerian autism and classic autism. The terms overlap with severe autism and profound autism (as opposed to "mild" or "moderate"), which may be vaguely defined and not necessarily correlate with severe and profound levels of intellectual disability (where profound is the most severe level).
  • 1.7K
  • 27 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Sarcoidosis and SARS-CoV-2 Infection
Patients with sarcoidosis are characterized by lung predilection, and in some cases, the imaging features maybe similar to those of the patients with COVID-19 pneumonia. Sarcoidosis is a granulomatous disorder characterized by diffusion of noncaseating and non-necrotizing granulomas, lungs are the most affected site even though no organ is spared.
  • 1.7K
  • 04 Mar 2021
Topic Review
Acute Stress Disorder
Acute stress disorder (ASD, also known as acute stress reaction, psychological shock, mental shock, or simply shock) is a psychological response to a terrifying, traumatic, or surprising experience. Acute stress disorder is not fatal, but it may bring about delayed stress reactions (better known as posttraumatic stress disorder, or PTSD) if not correctly addressed.
  • 1.7K
  • 14 Oct 2022
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