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Topic Review
RXynSOS
A GH10 β-1,4-endoxylanase (XynSOS), from the ascomycetous fungus Talaromyces amestolkiae, has been heterologously produced in Pichia pastoris, purified, and characterized. rXynSOS is a highly glycosylated monomeric enzyme of 53 kDa that contains a functional CBM1 domain and shows its optimal activity on azurine cross-linked (AZCL)–beechwood xylan at 70 °C and pH 5. rXynSOS was capable of transglycosylating phenolic compounds, although with low efficiencies.
  • 617
  • 14 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Extracellular Vesicle as Resourceful Biological Systems
In the era of multi-omic sciences, which continuously provide a more comprehensive overview of human pathogenesis, dogma on singular cause-effect in physio-pathological processes is overcome and system biology approaches have been welcomed to look at pathologies through new perspectives. In this context, extracellular vesicles (EVs) have also been targets of this approach, shedding light on their heterogeneity in terms of content, function, origin and potentiality.
  • 617
  • 18 May 2022
Topic Review
Limited Access to Drug in Malaria Control
Malaria burden has severe impact on the world. Several arsenals, including the use of antimalarials, are in place to curb the malaria burden. Limited access to drugs ensures that patients do not get the right doses of the antimalarials in order to have an effective plasma concentration to kill the malaria parasites, which leads to treatment failure and overall reduction in malaria control via increased transmission rate. 
  • 616
  • 29 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Oncogenic miRNAs in Breast Cancer Progression and Metastasis
Both clinical samples and cancer cell lines provide researchers with an insight into the complex structure and hierarchy of cancer. Intratumor heterogeneity allows for multiple cancer cell subpopulations to simultaneously coexist within tumors. One category of these cancer cell subpopulations is cancer stem cells (CSCs), which possess stem-like characteristics and are not easily detectable. In the case of breast cancer, which is the most prevalent cancer type among females, such subpopulations of cells have been isolated and characterized via specific stem cell markers. These stem-like cells, known as breast cancer stem cells (BCSCs), have been linked to major events during tumorigenesis including invasion, metastasis and patient relapse following conventional therapies. Complex signaling circuitries seem to regulate the stemness and phenotypic plasticity of BCSCs along with their differentiation, evasion of immunosurveillance, invasiveness and metastatic potential. Within these complex circuitries, new key players begin to arise, with one of them being a category of small non-coding RNAs, known as miRNAs.
  • 616
  • 25 Jun 2023
Topic Review
Prevalence of Bidirectional Promoter Complexes in Human Genome
An abundance of antisense promoters in the vicinity of the transcriptional start site of coding genes suggests that they play an important role in gene regulation. The divergent transcription of housekeeping genes by a common central promoter region allows for coordinated regulation of genes in related pathways and is also linked to higher promoter activity. However, closely positioned transcription start sites can also result in competition between overlapping promoter elements and generate a binary switch element. Furthermore, the direct competition resulting from the presence of an antisense promoter immediately downstream of the transcription start site of the gene produces an element that can exist in only one of two stable transcriptional states: sense or antisense.
  • 616
  • 28 Feb 2024
Topic Review
Epitranscriptomic Marks Affect RNA Structures
Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) belong to a class of non-protein-coding RNAs with their lengths longer than 200 nucleotides. Most of the mammalian genome is transcribed as RNA, yet only a small percent of the transcribed RNA corresponds to exons of protein-coding genes. Thus, the number of lncRNAs is predicted to be several times higher than that of protein-coding genes. Because of sheer number of lncRNAs, it is often difficult to elucidate the functions of all lncRNAs, especially those arising from their relationship to their binding partners, such as DNA, RNA, and proteins. Due to their binding to other macromolecules, it has become evident that the structures of lncRNAs influence their functions.
  • 615
  • 22 Apr 2022
Topic Review
MicroRNA-21 Regulates Stemness in PDAC
Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is the most common and aggressive type of pancreatic cancer (PCa) with a low survival rate. microRNAs (miRs) are endogenous, non-coding RNAs that moderate numerous biological processes. miRs have been associated with the chemoresistance and metastasis of PDAC and the presence of a subpopulation of highly plastic “stem”-like cells within the tumor, known as cancer stem cells (CSCs).
  • 613
  • 19 Apr 2022
Topic Review
Structure of Glycosylated Arsenicals
Microalgae are abundant components of the biosphere rich in low molecular weight carbohydrate-containing natural products (glycoconjugates). Glycoconjugates take part in the processes of photosynthesis, provide producers with important biological molecules, influence other organisms and are known by their biological activities. Some of them, for example, glycosylated toxins and arsenicals, are detrimental and can be transferred via food chains into higher organisms, including humans. 
  • 612
  • 05 Sep 2023
Topic Review
Modern Research on Heavy Metal Toxicity
This entry analyzes the causes and consequences of apoptosis and oxidative stress that occur in mitochondria and cells exposed to the toxic effects of different valent heavy metals (Ag+, Tl+, Hg2+, Cd2+, Pb2+, Al3+, Ga3+, In3+, As3+, Sb3+, Cr6+, and U6+). Experiments with different cells and mitochondria showed that the heavy metals under review induced apoptosis characterized by caspase-3 and -9 activation, Bax and Bcl-2 expression, and mitogen-activated protein kinases. 
  • 612
  • 11 Oct 2023
Topic Review
DNA-based Quality Control of Cell Lines
Cell lines are a widely used pre-clinical models for biomedical research. However, the access to cell lines from a non-confident source results in uncontrollable cell lines of uncertain quality, the main consequence of which is the lack of reproducibility between the research results. Compliance with Good Cell Culture Practice (GCCP) is essential to have quality-controlled material independently of its nature or downstream application. Quality controls of cell lines include the tools necessary to monitor their authentication, stability, functionality, and contamination absence by using different molecular biology techniques. Many of these quality controls used to test different attributes of cell lines are based on DNA, which are presented here.
  • 611
  • 04 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Chemical Sensor Based on Piezoelectric/Triboelectric Nanogenerators
Piezoelectric and triboelectric nanogenerators (P-TENGs) have emerged as promising technologies for converting mechanical energy into electrical energy, with potential applications in self-powered wearable and environmental monitoring devices. Modular design in P-TENGs, characterized by the flexible assembly and customization of device components, enables the development of sustainable and versatile chemical sensors.
  • 610
  • 24 May 2023
Topic Review
NMD Reaction and Regulation
Nonsense-mediated mRNA decay (NMD) is both a mechanism for rapidly eliminating mRNAs carrying a premature termination codon and a pathway that regulates many genes.
  • 609
  • 21 Jan 2022
Topic Review
Micronutrients in the Prevention of Cancer
Cancer is an escalating global issue, with 19.3 million new cases and 9.9 million deaths in 2020. Therefore, effective approaches to prevent cancer are urgently required. Diet plays a significant role in determining cancer risk. Nutrients and food bioactives influence specific signaling pathways in the body. There have been significant advances in cancer prevention research through nutrigenomics or with the effects of dietary components on the genome.
  • 609
  • 11 Apr 2023
Topic Review
How EMT Influences Resistance of OSCC to mAbs
Developing therapeutic resistance to monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) causes increasing failure in oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) treatment. A clear understanding of the molecular basis for drug resistance will pave the way for OSCC management and a new effective therapeutic modality. This entry elucidates the role played by EMT during the emergence of mAbs resistance and the configuration of the tumor microenvironment. The cancer cells that undergo the EMT process also cause significant energy substrate consumption which leads to a limited number and function of effective T-cells, eventually leading to immune evasion. This entry firstly reveals the implicit crosstalk between the EMT, energy metabolism, and therapeutic resistance of mAbs. A focus on the rebalanced energy homeostasis in cancer cells and T-cells may provide a new perspective on the treatment of OSCC. 
  • 608
  • 17 Jan 2022
Topic Review
Lactate-Dependent Mechanisms of Maintaining Cancer Cell Stemness
The role of lactic acid (lactate) in cell metabolism has been significantly revised. Initially, lactic acid was attributed to the role of a toxic end-product of metabolism, with its accumulation in the cell and extracellular space leading to acidosis, muscle pain, and other adverse effects. However, it has now become obvious that lactate is not only a universal fuel molecule and the main substrate for gluconeogenesis but also one of the most ancient metabolites, with a signaling function that has a wide range of regulatory activity. The Warburg effect described (the intensification of glycolysis associated with high lactate production), which is characteristic of many malignant tumors, confirms the key role of lactate not only in physiological conditions but also in pathologies. The study of lactate’s role in the malignant transformation becomes more relevant in the light of the “atavistic theory of carcinogenesis,” which suggests that tumor cells return to a more primitive hereditary phenotype during microevolution. 
  • 608
  • 08 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Non-Coding RNAs and the Regulation of Bone Diseases
Stem cells’ self-renewal and multi-lineage differentiation are regulated by a complex network consisting of signaling factors, chromatin regulators, transcription factors, and non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs). Diverse role of ncRNAs in stem cell development and maintenance of bone homeostasis have been discovered recently. The ncRNAs, such as long non-coding RNAs, micro RNAs, circular RNAs, small interfering RNA, Piwi-interacting RNAs, etc., are not translated into proteins but act as essential epigenetic regulators in stem cells’ self-renewal and differentiation. Different signaling pathways are monitored efficiently by the differential expression of ncRNAs, which function as regulatory elements in determining the fate of stem cells. In addition, several species of ncRNAs could serve as potential molecular biomarkers in early diagnosis of bone diseases, including osteoporosis, osteoarthritis, and bone cancers, ultimately leading to the development of new therapeutic strategies. 
  • 608
  • 28 Apr 2023
Topic Review
Chromatin Remodeler MORC2 in Cancer
A newly discovered chromatin remodeler, MORC2, is a Microrchidia (MORC) family member. MORC2 acts as a chromatin remodeler by binding to the DNA and changing chromatin conformation using its ATPase domain. MORC2 is highly expressed in a variety of human cancers. It controls diverse signaling pathways essential for cancer development through its target genes and interacting partners.
  • 608
  • 18 Oct 2023
Topic Review
CD133 as a Prognostic Biomarker in Oncology
The CD133 cell membrane glycoprotein, also termed prominin-1, is expressed on some of the tumor cells of both solid and blood malignancies. The CD133-positive tumor cells were shown to exhibit higher proliferative activity, greater chemo- and radioresistance, and enhanced tumorigenicity compared to their CD133-negative counterparts. The CD133-positive cells are related to the cancer stem cell subpopulation in many types of cancer. For this reason, CD133 is regarded as a potential prognostic biomarker in oncology. 
  • 608
  • 27 Dec 2023
Topic Review
Biosensors for the Detection of L-Amino Acids
The field of biosensors is filled with reports and designs of various sensors, with the vast majority focusing on glucose sensing. However, in addition to glucose, there are many other important analytes that are worth investigating as well. In particular, L-amino acids appear as important diagnostic markers for a number of conditions. The need to determine L-amino acids from clinical samples has risen. More clinical data appear to demonstrate that abnormal concentrations of L-amino acids are related to various clinical conditions such as inherited metabolic disorders, dyslipidemia, type 2 diabetes, muscle damage, etc.
  • 608
  • 03 Jan 2024
Topic Review
Synthetic Infectious Prion Formation De Novo
Prion diseases are a class of neurodegenerative diseases that are uniquely infectious. Whilst their general replication mechanism is well understood, the components required for the formation and propagation of highly infectious prions are poorly characterized. The protein-only hypothesis posits that the prion protein (PrP) is the only component of the prion; however, additional co-factors are required for its assembly into infectious prions. These can be provided by brain homogenate, but synthetic lipids and non-coding RNA have also been used in vitro.
  • 607
  • 08 Feb 2023
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