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Adefisoye, M.; Olaniran, A. Fundamentals of Chlorine Disinfection. Encyclopedia. Available online: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/23692 (accessed on 26 December 2024).
Adefisoye M, Olaniran A. Fundamentals of Chlorine Disinfection. Encyclopedia. Available at: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/23692. Accessed December 26, 2024.
Adefisoye, Martins, Ademola Olaniran. "Fundamentals of Chlorine Disinfection" Encyclopedia, https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/23692 (accessed December 26, 2024).
Adefisoye, M., & Olaniran, A. (2022, June 02). Fundamentals of Chlorine Disinfection. In Encyclopedia. https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/23692
Adefisoye, Martins and Ademola Olaniran. "Fundamentals of Chlorine Disinfection." Encyclopedia. Web. 02 June, 2022.
Fundamentals of Chlorine Disinfection
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This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/antibiotics11050564

Chlorine first reacts with organic and inorganic matters before pathogens inactivation. The amount of chlorine consumed in this process is termed chlorine demand. The combined chlorine that forms together with any free available chlorine in the water is called the chlorine residual. This is the component of the added chlorine that disinfects the water. Free available chlorine is formed by differences in the concentrations of hypochlorous and hypochlorite ions, a process that depends on the pH of the water. Even though the chlorination procedure is well-researched, establishing an appropriate chlorine dose remains a difficult task for many field applications. Nevertheless, the effective chlorine dose should be sufficient to destroy pathogens and oxidize the organic contaminants as well as maintain sufficient free available chlorine in the water distribution system, post-chlorination.

waterborne pathogens antimicrobial resistance (AMR) chlorination mutant selection window (MSW)

1. Breakpoint Chlorination and Factors Influencing Disinfection

Breakpoint chlorination is the continuous addition of chlorine until the chlorine demand is satisfied, combined chlorine compounds are oxidized and only free chlorine remains. The four phases involved in breakpoint chlorination is depicted in Figure 1.
Antibiotics 11 00564 g002
Figure 1. Graphical representation of breakpoint chlorination.
Complete oxidation of chlorine occurs in the first phase due to low chlorine concentration and lack of free chlorine residual. The phase is also known as the initial chlorine demand. Combined chlorine residual is formed between Cl− and NH4+ in the second phase. The concentration of the added chlorine in this phase is proportional to the total concentration of chlorine residual. Continuous addition of chlorine in the third phase causes oxidation of the combined residues causing a reduced concentration of the residual chlorine up to “dip” or “breakpoint”. Beyond this point, the concentration of the residual chlorine increases [1].
Temperature, pH, contact time, density and the inherent nature of microorganisms present determine the efficacy of the chlorination. Keeping all other factors constant, higher microbial load will demand higher chlorine dose and contact time. The physiological state of the microbes plays an important role in their chlorine sensitivity [2]. Generally, autochthonous microbes in natural water environments are more resistant to chlorination than laboratory-grown strains.

2. Mechanisms of Chlorine Disinfection

The biocidal mechanism of chlorination remains poorly understood. Some investigators opined that HOCl and OCl− formed when chlorine is added to water destroy microbial macromolecules. Further work on this supposition led to the “multiple hit” concept, which asserts that bacterial kill by chlorination is probably due to the attack and damage of microbial biomolecules [3]. Venkobachar et al. [4] and Haas [5] reported leakage of cellular macromolecules when bacteria were treated with chlorine. Venkobachar [4] also observed that chlorine significantly inhibits oxidative phosphorylation and the uptake of oxygen, and that, the inhibition of respiratory enzyme was responsible for the phosphorylation inhibition phenomenon, rather than a deficiency in phosphate uptake. In a different study, Chang [6] suggested that the extensive destruction of bacterial enzymatic systems is responsible for the rapid destruction of pathogens during chlorination. Various other investigators have also recognized that chlorine destroys microorganisms through changes in membrane permeability, nucleic acid damage and leakage of intracellular biomolecules [7][8]. Generally, it appears that chlorination causes physiological and morphological changes to the bacterial cell wall, altering its permeability. The chlorine molecules subsequently enter the cytoplasm, interfering with different enzymatic reactions, in a possible event cascade depicted in Figure 2.
Antibiotics 11 00564 g003
Figure 2. Schematic presentation of the possible events cascade of chlorine disinfection leading to microbial cell death. 1: Dissociating chlorine molecules attack and destroy bacterial cell walls altering permeability; 2: Entry of chlorine molecules into the cytoplasm interfering with biomolecules and enzymatic reactions; 3: Altered permeability causes vital cellular components leakage; 4: The series of events lead to the loss of cellular constituents and functions; 5: The loss of cellular constituents and function lead to eventual cell death.

3. Incidences of Chlorine Tolerant Microorganisms from Treated Water Sources

Various international and local authorities have regulations to ensure the protection of water sources from chemical and microbiological contaminants. At a global level, for instance, the WHO recommends chlorine residual of 0.2 to 0.5 mg/L in water supplies [9], while the South African Department of Water and Sanitation stipulates chlorine residual of 0.25 mg/L for discharged wastewater effluents released into surface water environment [10][11]. Although some concerns have emerged in recent years about the limitations of chlorine usage in water treatments, there is no doubt, however, that chlorination remains one of the most significant advances in water purification and public health protection [12]. Reports on chlorine surviving microorganisms from chlorinated water sources continue to emanate [13][14][15]. Various investigators have proposed different mechanisms by which microorganisms may develop tolerance to disinfectants. These include (i) cell surface modifications or encapsulation [16], (ii) attachment to surfaces or suspended particulate matter [17], (iii) microbial aggregation in biofilms [18], (iv) expression of multidrug efflux pump activity [19] and (v) spore formation [20]. These mechanisms conceivably favor the survival of opportunistic waterborne pathogens, thereby contributing to their persistence in water [21]. Table 1 lists some published studies on chlorine-resistant microorganisms from different sources and their reported mechanism of resistance.
Table 1. Summary of some reports of disinfectant-resistant microbes isolated from diverse aquatic sources.
Source Microorganism Disinfectant Concentration/Time Mechanism(s) of Resistance Reference
Drinking water P. aeruginosa ≤0.5 mg/L Cl− Natural resistance due to the permeability barrier caused by outer membrane lipopolysaccharides; biofilm formation [22]
Experimental isolates Acinetobacter
baumannii		 0.2–4 mg/L Increased expression of efflux pumps other antibiotic resistance genes [23]
Drinking water reservoir Acinetobater species, Serratia species 2 mg/L Not determined [15]
Sewage Bacillus species 0.1 mg/L NaOCl Probable spore formation [24]
Secondary effluent Citrobacter species 0.5 mg/L Ca(OCl)2 for 30 min Not determined [25]
Drinking water Bacillus species, Actinomycete 10 mg/L NaOCl for 2 min Cellular aggregation or adhesion to suspended particulate. Production of extracellular slime or capsular material [26]
Drinking water and experimental isolates Heterotrophic bacteria, faecal coliforms, E. coli, Salmonella typhimurium, Yersinia enterocolitica, Shigella sonnie 2.0 mg/L free chlorine for 1 h Bacterial attachment to surface and production of extracellular slime layer [27]
Chlorine-demand–free buffer solution Coliform isolated from drinking water systems and Enteric bacterial from culture collections cocultured with protozoa (Ciliates and amoebae). 2–4 mg/L free chlorine for 1–2 h Shielding of bacteria from chlorine by ingesting protozoans (cysts) and, thus, enhancing resistance [28]
Treated drinking water S. aureus, Micrococcus varians, Aeromonas hydrophila 1–100 mg/L Ca(OCl)2 solution for 30 min Possible synthesis of unique proteins or aggregation of bacteria or encapsulation [13]
Environmental isolates (Wastewater clarifier effluent) suspended in phosphate buffer saline Enterococcus species 0.5 mg/L Ca(OCl)2 for 30 min Not determined [29]
Environmental strains cultured in sterile phosphate buffer solution Legionella pneumophila from environmental water cocultured with Acanthamoeba species 2–3 mg/L Cl2 for 1 h with a residual Cl2 of 1 mg/L after 1 h Possible phenotypic modification of Legionella pneumophila due to intra-cellular growth with Acanthamoeba sp. [30]
Environmental isolates from wastewater treatment plants suspended in saline Bacillus species, Citrobacter freundii, Enterobacter species, Kluyvera cryocrescens, Kluyvera intermedia 0.5 mg/L NaOCl for 30 min Authors suggested the possible expression of certain stress factor genes which may reduce bacterial metabolism or change the permeability of cell membranes [31]
Environmental isolates (Wastewater clarifier effluent) suspended in phosphate buffer saline E. coli 0.5 mg/L NaOCl for 30 min Not determined [14]
 

References

  1. Musz-Pomorska, A.; Widomski, M.K. Variant analysis of the chlorination efficiency of water in a selected water supply network. Proc. ECOpole 2020, 14, 19–28.
  2. Jin, M.; Liu, L.; Wang, D.N.; Yang, D.; Liu, W.L.; Yin, J.; Yang, Z.W.; Wang, H.R.; Qiu, Z.G.; Shen, Z.Q.; et al. Chlorine disinfection promotes the exchange of antibiotic resistance genes across bacterial genera by natural transformation. ISME J. 2020, 114, 1847–1856.
  3. Calomiris, J.; Christman, K. How Does Chlorine Added to Drinking Water Kill Bacteria and Other Harmful Organisms? Why Doesn’t It Harm Us? Scientific American. Available online: https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-does-chlorine-added-t/ (accessed on 5 August 2021).
  4. Venkobachar, C.; Iyengar, L.; Rao, A.P. Mechanism of disinfection: Effect of chlorine on cell membrane functions. Water Res. 1977, 11, 727–729.
  5. Haas, C.N. Mechanisms of Inactivation of New Indicators of Disinfection Efficiency by Free Available Chlorine. Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Civil Engineering, the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL, USA, 1978; p. 158.
  6. Chang, S.L. Modern concept of disinfection. JSEDA 1971, 97, 689–707.
  7. Mizozoe, M.; Otaki, M.; Aikawa, K. The mechanism of chlorine damage using enhanced green fluorescent protein-expressing Escherichia coli. Water 2019, 11, 2156.
  8. Bridges, D.F.; Lacombe, A.; Wu, V.C. Integrity of the Escherichia coli O157: H7 cell wall and membranes after chlorine dioxide treatment. Front. Microbiol. 2020, 11, 888.
  9. Reed, B.; Shaw, R.; Chatterton, K. Technical Notes on Drinking-Water, Sanitation and Hygiene in Emergencies; WHO, Water, Engineering and Development Centre: Loughborough, UK, 2013.
  10. Adefisoye, M.A.; Okoh, A.I. Ecological and public health implications of the discharge of multidrug-resistant bacteria and physicochemical contaminants from treated wastewater effluents in the Eastern Cape, South Africa. Water 2017, 9, 562.
  11. National Water Act. Revision of General Authorization in Terms of Section 39 of the National Water Act, 1998 (Act No. 36 of 1998) (The Act); Gazette No. 19182, Notice No. 1091; National Water Act: 1998; South African Government Gazette: Pretoria, South Africa, 1998; Volume 26187.
  12. Yang, L.; Chen, X.; She, Q.; Cao, G.; Liu, Y.; Chang, V.W.C.; Tang, C.Y. Regulation, formation, exposure, and treatment of disinfection by-products (DBPs) in swimming pool waters: A critical review. Environ. Int. 2018, 121, 1039–1057.
  13. Al-Berfkani, M.I.; Zubair, A.I.; Bayazed, H. Assessment of chlorine resistant bacteria and their susceptibility to antibiotic from water distribution system in Duhok province. J. Appl. Biol. Biotechnol. 2014, 2, 010–013.
  14. Owoseni, M.C.; Olaniran, A.O.; Okoh, A.I. Chlorine tolerance and inactivation of Escherichia coli recovered from wastewater treatment plants in the Eastern Cape, South Africa. Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 810.
  15. Jathar, S.; Shinde, D.; Dakhni, S.; Fernandes, A.; Jha, P.; Desai, N.; Jobby, R. Identification and characterization of chlorine-resistant bacteria from water distribution sites of Mumbai. Arch. Microbiol. 2021, 203, 5241–5248.
  16. Martin, D.J.; Wesgate, R.L.; Denyer, S.P.; McDonnell, G.; Maillard, J.Y. Bacillus subtilis vegetative isolate surviving chlorine dioxide exposure: An elusive mechanism of resistance. J. Appl. Microbiol. 2015, 119, 1541–1551.
  17. Momba, M.N.B.; Kfir, R.; Venter, S.N.; Cloete, T.E. An overview of biofilm formation in distribution systems and its impact on the deterioration of water quality. Water SA 2000, 26, 59–66.
  18. Bridier, A.; Briandet, R.; Thomas, V.; Dubois-Brissonnet, F. Resistance of bacterial biofilms to disinfectants: A review. Biofouling 2011, 27, 1017–1032.
  19. Khan, S.; Beattie, T.K.; Knapp, C.W. Relationship between antibiotic-and disinfectant-resistance profiles in bacteria harvested from tap water. Chemosphere 2016, 152, 132–141.
  20. Du, Z.; Nandakumar, R.; Nickerson, K.W.; Li, X. Proteomic adaptations to starvation prepare Escherichia coli for disinfection tolerance. Water Res. 2015, 69, 110–119.
  21. Falkinham, J.O.; Pruden, A.; Edwards, M. Opportunistic premise plumbing pathogens: Increasingly important pathogens in drinking water. Pathogens 2015, 4, 373–386.
  22. Shrivastava, R.; Upreti, R.K.; Jain, S.R.; Prasad, K.N.; Seth, P.K.; Chaturvedi, U.C. Suboptimal chlorine treatment of drinking water leads to selection of multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 2004, 58, 277–283.
  23. Karumathil, D.P.; Yin, H.B.; Kollanoor-Johny, A.; Venkitanarayanan, K. Effect of chlorine exposure on the survival and antibiotic gene expression of multidrug-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii in water. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2014, 11, 1844–1854.
  24. Martins, S.C.S.; Júnior, G.D.S.F.; de Melo Machado, B.; Martins, C.M. Chlorine and antibiotic-resistant bacilli isolated from an effluent treatment plant. Acta Sci. Technol. 2013, 35, 3–9.
  25. Owoseni, M.; Okoh, A. Assessment of chlorine tolerance profile of Citrobacter species recovered from wastewater treatment plants in Eastern Cape, South Africa. EMA 2017, 189, 201.
  26. Ridgway, H.F.; Olson, B.H. Chlorine resistance patterns of bacteria from two drinking water distribution systems. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1982, 44, 972–987.
  27. LeChevallier, M.W.; Hassenauer, T.S.; Camper, A.K.; McFETERS, G.A. Disinfection of bacteria attached to granular activated carbon. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1984, 48, 918–923.
  28. King, C.H.; Shotts, E.B.; Wooley, R.E.; Porter, K.G. Survival of coliforms and bacterial pathogens within protozoa during chlorination. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1988, 54, 3023–3033.
  29. Owoseni, M.; Okoh, A. Evidence of emerging challenge of chlorine tolerance of Enterococcus species recovered from wastewater treatment plants. Int. Biodeterior. Biodegrad. 2017, 120, 216–223.
  30. Dupuy, M.; Mazoua, S.; Berne, F.; Bodet, C.; Garrec, N.; Herbelin, P.; Ménard-Szczebara, F.; Oberti, S.; Rodier, M.H.; Soreau, S.; et al. Efficiency of water disinfectants against Legionella pneumophila and Acanthamoeba. Water Res. 2011, 45, 1087–1094.
  31. Martínez-Hernández, S.; Vázquez-Rodríguez, G.A.; Beltrán-Hernández, R.I.; Prieto-García, F.; Miranda-López, J.M.; Franco-Abuín, C.M.; Álvarez-Hernández, A.; Iturbe, U.; Coronel-Olivares, C. Resistance and inactivation kinetics of bacterial strains isolated from the non-chlorinated and chlorinated effluents of a WWTP. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2013, 10, 3363–3383.
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