Summary

Environmental science emerged from the fields of natural history and medicine during the Enlightenment. Today, it provides an integrated, quantitative, and interdisciplinary approach to the study of environmental systems. Environmental studies are incorporating more of the social sciences in order to understand human relationships, perceptions and policies towards the environment. This entry collection features information about design and technology for improving environmental quality in every aspect.

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Topic Review
Higher Plants and Macro-Fungi
The Kingdom of Plantae is considered the main source of human food, and includes several edible and medicinal plants, whereas mushrooms belong to the Kingdom of fungi. Higher plants and macro-fungi (mushrooms) are important species, which have many common attributes (e.g., the nutritional and medicinal ones), although they have many differences. Higher plants can form their own food (which contains chlorophyll as autotrophic) from sunlight, water, and CO2, whereas mushrooms as saprophytes can biodegrade dead organic matter by extracting enzymes. Fungi are considered, in general, decomposers, pathogens, parasites, or mutualists. There are a lot of similar characteristics between mushrooms and higher plants, but there are also many differences among them, especially from the human health point of view. 
  • 585
  • 06 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Petroleum Coke on Hg0 Removal
As the solid waste by-product from the delayed coking process, high-sulfur petroleum coke (HSPC), which is hardly used for green utilization, becomes a promising raw material for Hg0 removal from coal-fired flue gas. The effects of the physical–chemical evolution of HSPC on Hg0 removal are discussed. The improved micropores created by pyrolysis and KOH activation could lead to over 50% of Hg0 removal efficiency with the loss of inherent sulfur. Additional S-containing and Br-containing additives are usually introduced to enhance active surface functional groups for Hg0 oxidation, where the main product are HgS, HgBr, and HgBr2. The chemical–mechanical activation method can make additives well loaded on the surface for Hg0 removal.
  • 492
  • 16 Jun 2022
Topic Review
Importance, Properties and Benefits of Biochar
Biochar can be defined as the carbonaceous product that is obtained when biomass is subjected to heat treatment in an oxygen-limited environment (pyrolysis) and the charred product when applied to soil as an amendment. It is an important and popular carbon sequestration method to mitigate climate change.
  • 9.1K
  • 15 Jun 2022
Topic Review
The Toxicity of Zearalenone
Zearalenone (ZEA) is one of the top five agriculturally important and of greatest concern mycotoxins. Its toxicity is mainly manifested in the following aspects: reproductive toxicity, hepatotoxicity, immunotoxicity, genotoxicity, and carcinogenicity. Several acute toxicity studies have given oral LD50s of ZEA, which are above 2000, 4000, and 5000 mg/kg bw in mice, rats, and Guinea pigs, respectively. The no-observed-effect level (NOEL) of ZEA in pigs and rats shown by 90-day sub-chronic oral toxicity studies were 40 and 100 μg/kg bw, respectively. Since ZEA has an estrogen-like structure, it binds to various estrogen receptors (ERs). Therefore, low-dose ZEA interferes with the physiological–metabolic response and affects the vital functions of the body. Reproductive toxicity is one of ZEA’s main toxic effects, which causes reproductive disorders in various animals. Besides, ZEA is a potential carcinogen. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) classifies ZEA as the first Class 3 carcinogen. Existing studies indicate that ZEA induces genotoxicity by DNA fragmentation, micronucleus formation, DNA adduct formation, chromosomal aberrations, and apoptosis. Additionally, ZEA induces liver lesions accompanied by cancer development. Moreover, ZEA is immunotoxic and nephrotoxic. It causes changes in immune parameters and chronic progressive nephropathy both in vivo and vitro.
  • 560
  • 13 Jun 2022
Topic Review
Map Projections Classification
Many books, textbooks and papers have been published in which the classification of map projections is based on auxiliary (developable) surfaces and projections are divided into conic, cylindrical and azimuthal projections.
  • 1.4K
  • 13 Jun 2022
Topic Review
Effects of Seawater Acidification on Echinoid Adult Stage
The continuous release of CO2 in the atmosphere is increasing the acidity of seawater worldwide, and the pH is predicted to be reduced by ~0.4 units by 2100. Ocean acidification (OA) is changing the carbonate chemistry, jeopardizing the life of marine organisms, and in particular calcifying organisms. Because of their calcareous skeleton and limited ability to regulate the acid–base balance, echinoids are among the organisms most threatened by OA.
  • 573
  • 17 Jun 2022
Topic Review
Landscape Elements in the Lhasa Residential Area
Landscape elements have a direct impact on the thermal environment and have become an important means to improve the quality of life of residents. However, the selection and configuration of landscape elements have different effects on human thermal comfort under different climatic conditions. Lhasa is located in the middle of the Qinghai Tibet Plateau, with an altitude of 3650 meters. Due to the particularity of its geographical location, the climate conditions in Lhasa are significantly different from those in Beijing, Xi'an, Lanzhou and other cities in the same climate area. At the same time, the local residents are mainly Tibetans. Religious culture and climate conditions have led to significant differences in the living habits and the needs for thermal comfort of local residents compared with those of residents in other cities. Therefore, researcher focuses on special climatic conditions, taking the typical residential areas in Lhasa, Tibet as the research object, in order to better understand the impact of residential landscape elements on the outdoor thermal environment and thermal comfort in the plateau cold climate area.
  • 474
  • 17 Jun 2022
Topic Review
Human Communities in Protected Natural Areas
The mission of natural heritage conservation through different modalities has its main instrument in the creation and management of protected natural areas (PNAs) based on a conservation culture of natural ecosystems and sustainable development. Protected areas are well received throughout the world as environmental policy tools characterized by the preservation and protection of diverse ecosystems, where the original environment has not been essentially altered, producing a series of increasingly valued environmental services.
  • 834
  • 08 Jun 2022
Topic Review
Alien Insect Species for Food and Feed
While the use of alien insect species for food and feed can help to alleviate protein shortage and provide for a more sustainable feed production, their invasive potential should be considered.
  • 1.2K
  • 05 Jul 2022
Topic Review
Measures against Toxic of Ochratoxin A
Ochratoxin A (OTA), which is a frequent contaminant in feeds/foods for animals and humans all over the world, is defined by IARC as a possible human carcinogen and belongs to group 2B mycotoxins, which is based on various experimental studies with rats or mice. Therefore, there are still some disputes among the research community in regard to the real potential of OTA to be carcinogenic for animals, poultry or humans because the mentioned above studies address mainly laboratory animals, such as mice or rats, whereas the data for humans, farm animals and poultry are still limited.
  • 391
  • 08 Jun 2022
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