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Topic Review
Exercise Regulates Microglial Activation by Increasing Anti-Inflammatory Factors
Exercise impacts our body at multiple levels, including the central nervous system (CNS). In responding to exercise-related stress (e.g., hypoxia, heat, free radicals, etc.) and injuries, the body launches multiple endogenous protective and repair systems by altering gene expression and releasing a range of factors that prepare the body for the next challenge. Accumulating evidence indicates that exercise can enhance brain function and attenuate neurodegeneration. Besides improving neuroplasticity by altering the synaptic structure and function in various brain regions, exercise also modulates multiple systems that are known to regulate neuroinflammation and glial activation. Activated microglia and several pro-inflammatory cytokines play active roles in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson’s disease. 
  • 240
  • 17 Jul 2023
Topic Review
Exercise-Boosted Mitochondrial Remodeling in Parkinson’s Disease
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a movement disorder characterized by the progressive degeneration of dopaminergic neurons resulting in dopamine deficiency in the striatum. Given the estimated escalation in the number of people with PD, interventions aimed at minimizing morbidity and improving quality of life are crucial. Mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress are intrinsic factors related to PD pathogenesis. Accumulating evidence suggests that patients with PD might benefit from various forms of exercise in diverse ways, from general health improvements to disease-specific effects and, potentially, disease-modifying effects.
  • 420
  • 23 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Exocytosis Mechanisms/Pathways of Nanoparticles
Both biomedical applications and safety assessments of manufactured nanomaterials require a thorough understanding of the interaction between nanomaterials and cells, including how nanomaterials enter cells, transport within cells, and leave cells. Compared to the extensively studied uptake and trafficking of nanoparticles (NPs) in cells, less attention has been paid to the exocytosis of NPs. Yet exocytosis is an indispensable process of regulating the content of NPs in cells, which in turn influences, even decides, the toxicity of NPs to cells. A comprehensive understanding of the mechanisms and influencing factors of the exocytosis of NPs is not only essential for the safety assessment of NPs but also helpful for guiding the design of safe and highly effective NP-based materials for various purposes.
  • 292
  • 10 Aug 2023
Topic Review
Exosomal Cargos on Osteosarcoma Progression
Osteosarcoma (OS) is a primary malignant bone tumor with high metastasis. Poor prognosis highlights a clinical need for novel therapeutic strategies. Exosomes, also known as extracellular vesicles, have been identified as essential players in the modulation of cancer. OS-derived exosomes can drive pro-tumorigenic or anti-tumorigenic phenotypes by transferring specific cargos, including proteins, nucleic acids, and metabolites, to neighboring cells, significantly impacting the regulation of cellular processes. 
  • 183
  • 15 Jan 2024
Topic Review
Exosomes and Diabetes
Diabetes is part of a group of metabolic disorders characterized by long-term high blood glucose levels due to either inadequate production of insulin (type 1) or poor response of the recipient cell to insulin (type 2). Organ dysfunctions are the main causes of morbidity and mortality due to high glucose levels. Exosomes are part of a newly emerged research area and have attracted a great deal of attention for their capacity to regulate communications between cells. In conditions of diabetes, exosomes play important roles in the pathological processes in both T1DM and T2DM, such as connecting the immune cell response to pancreatic tissue injury, as well as adipocyte stimulation to insulin resistance of skeletal muscle or liver. Furthermore, in recent years, nucleic acids containing exosomes—especially microRNAs (miRNAs) and long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs)—have been shown to mainly regulate communications between organs in pathological processes of diabetes, including influencing metabolic signals and insulin signals in target tissues, affecting cell viability, and modulating inflammatory pancreatic cells. Moreover, exosome miRNAs show promise in their use as biomarkers or in treatments for diabetes and diabetic complications.  
  • 951
  • 25 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Exosomes in Alpha-Synucleinopathies
The pathological accumulation of alpha-synuclein governs the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative disorders, such as Parkinson’s disease, dementia with Lewy bodies, and multiple system atrophy, collectively termed alpha-synucleinopathies. Alpha-synuclein can be released in the extracellular space, partly via exosomes, and this extracellular protein pool may contribute to disease progression by facilitating the spread of pathological alpha-synuclein or activating immune cells. The content of exosomes depends on their origin and includes specific proteins, lipids, functional mRNAs and various non-coding RNAs. Given their ability to mediate intercellular communication via the transport of multilevel information, exosomes are considered to be transporters of toxic agents. Beyond neurons, glial cells also release exosomes, which may contain inflammatory molecules and this glia-to-neuron or neuron-to-glia transmission of exosomal alpha-synuclein may contribute to the propagation of pathology and neuroinflammation throughout the brain. In addition, as their content varies as per their originating and recipient cells, these vesicles can be utilized as a diagnostic biomarker for early disease detection, whereas targeted exosomes may be used as scaffolds to deliver therapeutic agents into the brain.
  • 479
  • 21 Jul 2022
Topic Review
Exosomes in Bone Sarcomas
Bone sarcomas are rare cancers which often present with metastatic disease and are still associated with poor survival rates. Studies in the last decade have identified that exosomes, a type of extracellular vesicle released by cells, play an important role in tumour progression and dissemination. Through the transfer of their cargo (RNAs, proteins, and lipids) across cells, they are involved in cellular cross-talk and can induce changes in cellular behaviour. Exosomes have been shown to be important in metastasis organotropism, induction of angiogenesis and vascular permeability, the education of cells towards a pro-metastatic phenotype or the interaction between stromal and tumour cells. Due to the importance exosomes have in disease progression and the high incidence of metastasis in bone sarcomas, recent studies have evaluated the implications of these extracellular vesicles in bone sarcomas.
  • 511
  • 17 May 2021
Topic Review
Exosomes in Glioma
Gliomas, the most prevalent primary malignant brain tumors, present a challenging prognosis even after undergoing surgery, radiation, and chemotherapy. Exosomes, nano-sized extracellular vesicles secreted by various cells, play a pivotal role in glioma progression and contribute to resistance against chemotherapy and radiotherapy by facilitating the transportation of biological molecules and promoting intercellular communication within the tumor microenvironment. Moreover, exosomes exhibit the remarkable ability to traverse the blood–brain barrier, positioning them as potent carriers for therapeutic delivery. These attributes hold promise for enhancing glioma diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment. 
  • 191
  • 28 Feb 2024
Topic Review
Exosomes in Motor Neurone Disease
Exosomes are attractive as vehicle systems for small therapeutic molecules and/or biomolecules including nucleic acids and proteins because of their lipid nature, presence of specific surface ligands (CD11b and CD18 receptors, integrins, tetraspanins) and ability to cross the blood–brain barrier. When compared to other drug delivery systems, exosomes have the distinct advantages of blood–brain barrier penetrance, longer duration in systemic circulation, tissue specificity that minimizes unwanted toxicity or off-target effects, stability of content, desirable biocompatibility and minimal toxicity issues. Techniques such as fusion expression, exosome membrane surface display and anchoring platforms have been used to attach peptides and biological ligands of interest to adhesion molecules, tetraspanins or integrins on exosome surface to ensure targeted delivery and enhanced uptake into desired cells.
  • 782
  • 08 Nov 2021
Topic Review
Exosomes to Head and Neck Cancer
Head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) represents an aggressive and heterogenous group of cancers whose pathologies remain largely unresolved. Exosomes are a subtype of extracellular vesicles secreted by a variety of cells that have begun to spark significant interest in their roles in cancer. As membranous vesicles, spanning from 30–150 nm in diameter, exosomes mediate the transport of various molecules, such as proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids, intercellularly throughout the body. In doing so, exosomes not only act to deliver materials to cancer cells but also as signals that can confer their progression. Accumulating evidence shows the direct correlation between exosomes and the aggressiveness of HNSCC. 
  • 426
  • 24 Nov 2021
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