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Topic Review
Hypercoagulable State in COPD
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) is a chronic inflammatory disease with multisystemic manifestations. Studies either held on stable disease patients or during exacerbations, have demonstrated that COPD is strongly related to venous thromboembolism and cardiovascular events.
  • 661
  • 18 Aug 2021
Topic Review
Diet, Gut Microbiota, and Lung
The gut microbiota is often mentioned as a “forgotten organ” or “metabolic organ”, given its profound impact on host physiology, metabolism, immune function and nutrition. A healthy diet is undoubtedly a major contributor for promoting a “good” microbial community that turns out to be crucial for a fine-tuned symbiotic relationship with the host. Meanwhile, diet is a key modifiable factor influencing the gut microbiota in several lung diseases.
  • 655
  • 25 Jun 2021
Topic Review
Chest Imaging in Viral Pneumonia
Viral pneumonia is one the most frequent respiratory diseases among very young people and the elderly, contributing to an increase in the number of hospitalizations and deaths, mainly in subjects over 60 years of age. To assess the presence of pulmonary involvement and extension of disease, diagnostic imaging techniques are traditional chest radiographs (CXR) and computed tomography (CT). CXR may show a negative radiological pattern or otherwise areas of monolateral or bilateral consolidations, in association with nodular opacities, bronchial wall thickening, and small pleural effusions.
  • 655
  • 02 Jul 2021
Topic Review
Melatonin in Disease and Health
Melatonin is a derivative of tryptophan, synthesized mainly in the pineal gland. Its synthesis is characterized by a regular circadian rhythm, with a peak concentration in plasma reached in the night hours. The intensity of melatonin production is related to exposure to light, with an increase of its synthesis in the dark part of the day.
  • 647
  • 25 Aug 2021
Topic Review
Pulmonary Sarcoidosis
Sarcoidosis is a multisystem disorder of unknown origin and poorly understood pathogenesis that predominantly affects lungs and intrathoracic lymph nodes and is characterized by the presence of noncaseating granulomatous inflammation in involved organs. The disease is highly heterogeneous and can mimic a plethora of other disorders, making diagnosis a challenge even for experienced physicians. The evolution and severity of sarcoidosis are highly variable: many patients are asymptomatic and their disease course is generally benign with spontaneous resolution. However, up to one-third of patients develop chronic or progressive disease mainly due to pulmonary or cardiovascular complications that require long-term therapy. The diagnosis of sarcoidosis requires histopathological evidence of noncaseating granulomatous inflammation in one or more organs coupled with compatible clinical and radiological features and the exclusion of other causes of granulomatous inflammation; however, in the presence of typical disease manifestations such as Löfgren’s syndrome, Heerfordt’s syndrome, lupus pernio and asymptomatic bilateral and symmetrical hilar lymphadenopathy, the diagnosis can be established with high level of certainty on clinical grounds alone.
  • 614
  • 23 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Congenital Lung Malformations
Congenital lung malformations arise during development and include numerous anatomical anomalies of the lung and respiratory tree. They are usually detected prenatally by ultrasonography and comprise congenital pulmonary airway malformation (CPAM), bronchopulmonary sequestration (BPS), bronchogenic cysts (BC), and more rarely bronchial atresia, congenital lobar emphysema (CLE), and congenital tracheal obstruction. This entry focuses on the molecular and genetic determinants of the most frequent anomalies: CPAM, BPS, and BC. Congenital diaphragmatic hernia (CDH) is not usually included in this group; however, since the lung is also highly affected in this condition, we have also incorporated evidence related to lung hypoplasia.
  • 611
  • 30 Nov 2021
Topic Review
The Mechanisms Underlying Vertical Artifacts in Lung Ultrasound
The recent advances in lung ultrasound for the diagnosis of cardiogenic pulmonary edema are outstanding; however, the mechanism of vertical artifacts known as B-lines used for the diagnosis has not yet been fully elucidated. The theory of “acoustic trap” is useful when considering the generation of vertical artifacts. Basic research in several studies supports the theory. Published studies with pilot experiments indicate that clarification of the relationship between the length and intensity of vertical artifacts and physical or acoustic composition of sources may be useful for differentiating cardiogenic pulmonary edema from lung diseases. There is no international consensus with regard to the optimal settings of ultrasound machines even though their contribution to the configuration of vertical artifacts is evident. In the clinical setting, the configuration is detrimentally affected by the use of spatial compound imaging, the placement of the focal point at a deep level, and the use of multiple focus. Simple educational materials using a glass microscope slide also show the non-negligible impact of the ultrasound machine settings on the morphology of vertical artifacts.
  • 597
  • 29 Apr 2022
Topic Review
Connective Tissue Growth Factor in Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis
Connective Tissue Growth Factor, also known as the cellular communication network 2 (CCN2), is a TGF-β-target gene and a member of the CCN family of secreted proteins that regulate matricellular protein. Matricellular proteins are expressed at higher levels during physiological and pathological processes, with distinct functions that bind to multiple receptors, other growth factors, and proteases, modulating their activity and mediating cross-talk between the ECM and cells. Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis is a chronic, devastating, irreversible lung disease, characterized by injury-induced alveolar epithelial cell stress, progressive pathogenic myofibroblast differentiation, and imbalanced macrophage polarization, resulting in ECM deposition. 
  • 596
  • 04 Jul 2022
Topic Review
Diagnosis and Treatment of Obstructive Sleep Apnea Children
Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) is a common disease that is often under-diagnosed and under-treated in all ages. This is due to differences in morphology, diversity in clinical phenotypes, and differences in diagnosis and treatment of OSA in children and adults, even among individuals of the same age. 
  • 592
  • 21 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Cell-Based Therapies to Promote Lung Regeneration in IPF
The lung epithelium is constantly exposed to harmful agents present in the air that we breathe making it highly susceptible to damage. However, in instances of injury to the lung, it exhibits a remarkable capacity to regenerate injured tissue thanks to the presence of distinct stem and progenitor cell populations along the airway and alveolar epithelium. Mechanisms of repair are affected in chronic lung diseases such as idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF), a progressive life-threatening disorder characterized by the loss of alveolar structures, wherein excessive deposition of extracellular matrix components cause the distortion of tissue architecture that limits lung function and impairs tissue repair. cell therapy has been investigated for the treatment of IPF, including the use of a variety of cell types such as lung epithelial cells, specifically AT2 cells, induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), and mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) isolated from bone marrow stroma and those from adipose tissue or from other tissues.
  • 579
  • 06 Sep 2022
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