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Topic Review
Parameters Used to Evaluate Glycemic Variability
In the current diabetes management paradigm, we know that in evaluating the overall quality of glycemic control, besides the traditional measurements of glycemias and HbA1c, we need also to evaluate the degree of glycemic values fluctuations, which are incorporated in the glycemic variability phenomena. It is well known, that independently of glycemic values and HbA1c, glycemic variability is associated with the development of chronic diabetes complications and is linked to an increased risk of clinically significant hypo- and hyper- glycemias. To evaluate glycemic variability, several parameters are recommended, depending on what component of glycemic varibility is wanted to be assessed. Herein, the most frequently used parameters of glycemic variability are presented, how these parameters are calculated as well as their individual clinical usage are also described. 
  • 137
  • 11 Mar 2024
Topic Review
Parent Management Training
Parent management training (PMT), also known as behavioral parent training (BPT) or simply parent training, is a family of treatment programs that aims to change parenting behaviors, teaching parents positive reinforcement methods for improving pre-school and school-age children's behavior problems (such as aggression, hyperactivity, temper tantrums, and difficulty following directions). PMT is one of the most investigated treatments available for disruptive behavior, particularly oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) and conduct disorder (CD); it is effective in reducing child disruptive behavior and improving parental mental health. PMT has also been studied as a treatment for disruptive behaviors in children with other conditions. Limitations of the existing research on PMT include a lack of knowledge on mechanisms of change and the absence of studies of long-term outcomes. PMT may be more difficult to implement when parents are unable to participate fully due to psychopathology, limited cognitive capacity, high partner conflict, or inability to attend weekly sessions. PMT was initially developed in the 1960s by child psychologists who studied changing children's disruptive behaviors by intervening to change parent behaviors. The model was inspired by principles of operant conditioning and applied behavioral analysis. Treatment, which typically lasts for several months, focuses on parents learning to provide positive reinforcement, such as praise and rewards, for children's appropriate behaviors while setting proper limits, using methods such as removing attention for inappropriate behaviors.
  • 768
  • 22 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Parent-infant Psychotherapy
Psychodynamic Therapy with Infants and Parents (abbr. PTIP) aims to relieve emotional disturbances within the parent(s), the baby, and/or their interaction, for example, postnatal depression and anxiety, infant distress with breastfeeding and sleep, and attachment disorders. It rests on attachment theory and psychoanalysis. Sigmund Freud suggested that a modification of his method could be applied to children, and child analysis was introduced in the 1920s by [Anna Freud].., [Melanie Klein], and Hermine Hug von Hellmuth. Klein speculated on infantile experiences to understand her patients' disorders but she did not practice PTIP. Donald Winnicott, a pediatrician and analyst, focused on the mother-baby interplay in his theorizing and his brief parent-child consultations, but he did not work with PTIP.
  • 443
  • 07 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Parenteral Nutrition and Sepsis
Parenteral nutrition (PN) is recommended in malnourished patients or those at risk of malnutrition in some conditions—such as gut functional unavailability or gut physical inaccessibility. The lipids are sepsis risk factors in patients receiving parenteral nutrition. 
  • 1.2K
  • 29 Jul 2022
Topic Review
Pathogenesis and Histopathology of Albuminuric and Non-Albuminuric DKD
Diabetic kidney disease (DKD) is a common microvascular complication that develops in approximately 40% of patients with diabetes. It is the main cause of chronic kidney disease (CKD) and end-stage renal disease (ESRD) and is a major cause of mortality and morbidity in diabetics not only due to ESRD but also because of the resulting cardiovascular risk.
  • 296
  • 18 May 2023
Topic Review
Pathogenesis, Diagnostics, and Therapeutics for Human Monkeypox Disease
The monkeypox disease is a zoonotic-infectious disease that transmits between animals and humans. It is caused by a double-stranded DNA virus belonging to the Orthopoxvirus genus that is closely related to the variola virus –the causative agent of smallpox.
  • 500
  • 25 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Pathophysiolocigal and Molecular Mechanisms in Vascular Aging
Vascular aging, characterized by structural and functional alterations of the vascular wall, is a hallmark of aging and is tightly related to the development of cardiovascular mortality and age-associated vascular pathologies. 
  • 538
  • 29 Aug 2022
Topic Review
Pathophysiology of Chronic Constipation
Constipation is one of the major gastrointestinal disorders diagnosed in clinical practice in Western countries. Almost 20% of population suffer from this disorder, which means constipation is a substantial utilization of healthcare. Pathophysiology of constipation is complex and multifactorial, where aspects like disturbance in colonic transit, genetic predisposition, lifestyle habits, psychological distress, and many others need to be taken into consideration.
  • 708
  • 25 Apr 2021
Topic Review
Pathophysiology of Primary Aldosteronism
Primary aldosteronism (PA), a significant and curable cause of secondary hypertension, is seen in 5–10% of hypertensive patients, with its prevalence contingent upon the severity of the hypertension. The principal aetiologies of PA include bilateral idiopathic hypertrophy (BIH) and aldosterone-producing adenomas (APAs), while the less frequent causes include unilateral hyperplasia, familial hyperaldosteronism (FH) types I-IV, aldosterone-producing carcinoma, and ectopic aldosterone synthesis. This condition, characterised by excessive aldosterone secretion, leads to augmented sodium and water reabsorption alongside potassium loss, culminating in distinct clinical hallmarks: elevated aldosterone levels, suppressed renin levels, and hypertension. Notably, hypokalaemia is present in only 28% of patients with PA and is not a primary indicator. The association of PA with an escalated cardiovascular risk profile, independent of blood pressure levels, is notable. Patients with PA exhibit a heightened incidence of cardiovascular events compared to counterparts with essential hypertension, matched for age, sex, and blood pressure levels.
  • 113
  • 26 Jan 2024
Topic Review
Pathophysiology of Psoriasis
Psoriasis is an immune-mediated inflammatory disease, with a chronic relapsing-remitting course, which affects 2–3% of the worldwide population. Psoriasis vulgaris is a common inflammatory, immune-mediated, chronic, and recurrent dermatosis, caused by the interplay between multiple genetic and environmental risk factors. The clinical feature of psoriasis is dominated by erythematous-squamous plaques which usually, but non-exclusively arise symmetrically on the extensor surfaces of the elbows and knees, scalp, lumbosacral area, and it reflects some pathogenetic mechanisms underlying psoriasis, i.e., inflammation, hyperproliferation, angiogenesis.
  • 547
  • 28 Oct 2021
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