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Topic Review
Antigen Presentation of SARS-CoV-2 mRNA Vaccines
Infection with Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) causes Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19), which has reached pandemic proportions. A number of effective vaccines have been produced, including mRNA vaccines and viral vector vaccines, which are now being implemented on a large scale in order to control the pandemic. The mRNA vaccines are composed of viral Spike S1 protein encoding mRNA incorporated in a lipid nanoparticle and stabilized by polyethylene glycol (PEG). The mRNA vaccines are novel in many respects, including cellular uptake and the intracellular routing, processing, and secretion of the viral protein. Because of space restrictions, viral vector vaccines not discussed in detail. The antigen presentation routes in MHC class I and class II, in relation to the induction of virus-neutralizing antibodies and cytotoxic T-lymphocytes, will be reviewed. In rare cases, mRNA vaccines induce unwanted immune mediated side effects. In rare cases, the mRNA-based vaccines may lead to an anaphylactic reaction. This reaction may be triggered by PEG. The intracellular routing of PEG and potential presentation in the context of CD1 will be discussed. 
  • 1.3K
  • 11 Oct 2021
Topic Review
Bartha K61 Strain
Pseudorabies virus (PRV) is a member of the alphaherpesvirus subfamily of the herpesviruses and is the causative agent of Aujeszky’s disease in pigs, causing respiratory, neurological, and reproductive symptoms. Given the heavy economic losses associated with Aujeszky’s disease epidemics, great efforts were made to develop efficacious vaccines. One of the best modified live vaccines to this day is the attenuated Bartha K61 strain. The use of this vaccine in extensive vaccination programs worldwide has assisted considerably in the eradication of PRV from the domesticated pig population in numerous countries. The Bartha K61 strain was described in 1961 by Adorján Bartha in Budapest and was obtained by serial passaging in different cell cultures. Ever since, it has been intensively studied by several research groups, for example, to explore its efficacy as a vaccine strain, to molecularly and mechanistically explain its attenuation, and to use it as a retrograde neuronal tracer and as a vector vaccine. Given that the Bartha K61 vaccine strain celebrates its 60th birthday in 2021 with no sign of retirement, this review provides a short summary of the knowledge on its origin, characteristics, and use as a molecular tool and as a vaccine.
  • 1.3K
  • 17 Nov 2020
Topic Review
Microbial Fermentation Technology
Fermentation is one of the earliest biotechnological methods of food preservation and processing to be extensively applied in the world: foods (fermented food, food additives, functional materials and live probiotics); intestines (aids digestion and promotes absorption, synthetic bioactive substances, inhibits harmful bacteria, diabetes, cardiopathy and allergy); and industry (energy, soil transformation and sewage treatment). The current trends in fermented-based vegetable foods are growing. Fermentation has been used for ages as a safe technique for food preservation, and it uses minimal resources. Fermentation is related to a wide range of catabolic biochemical procedures in both eukaryotes and prokaryotes. Yeasts are eukaryotes; they can use oxygen while also having the ability to live without oxygen. The lactate fermentation process consists of glycolysis and some alternative steps.
  • 1.3K
  • 27 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Free Radicals
Free radicals are atoms, molecules or ions with one or more unpaired electrons. The most reactive ones have high reduction potentials; i.e., they readily oxidize most molecules indiscriminately. There is a common misconception that all free radicals are highly reactive, but in fact the range of those able to cause biological damage is quite narrow: it is made up principally of hydroxyl, peroxyl, alkoxyl, thiyl, phenoxyl and semiquinone free radicals, and high valence transition ions.
  • 1.3K
  • 07 Oct 2021
Topic Review
Hepatitis E Virus
Hepatitis E virus (HEV) (family Hepeviridae) is one of the most common human pathogens, causing acute hepatitis and an increasingly recognized etiological agent in chronic hepatitis and extrahepatic manifestations. Not only the members of the species Orthohepevirus A  (HEV-A) pathogenic to humans but a genetically highly divergent rat origin hepevirus (HEV-C1) in species Orthohepevirus C (HEV-C) is also able to cause zoonotic infection and symptomatic disease (hepatitis) in humans.
  • 1.3K
  • 29 Oct 2020
Topic Review
Artemisia Argentea
Artemisia /ˌɑːrtɪˈmiːziə/ is a large, diverse genus of plants with between 200 and 400 species belonging to the daisy family Asteraceae. Common names for various species in the genus include mugwort, wormwood, and sagebrush. Artemisia comprises hardy herbaceous plants and shrubs, which are known for the powerful chemical constituents in their essential oils. Artemisia species grow in temperate climates of both hemispheres, usually in dry or semiarid habitats. Notable species include A. vulgaris (common mugwort), A. tridentata (big sagebrush), A. annua (sagewort), A. absinthium (wormwood), A. dracunculus (tarragon), and A. abrotanum (southernwood). The leaves of many species are covered with white hairs. Most species have strong aromas and bitter tastes from terpenoids and sesquiterpene lactones, which discourage herbivory, and may have had a selective advantage. The small flowers are wind-pollinated. Artemisia species are used as food plants by the larvae of a number of Lepidoptera species. Some botanists split the genus into several genera, but DNA analysis does not support the maintenance of the genera Crossostephium, Filifolium, Neopallasia, Seriphidium, and Sphaeromeria; three other segregate genera -- Stilnolepis, Elachanthemum, and Kaschgaria -- are maintained by this evidence. Occasionally, some of the species are called sages, causing confusion with the Salvia sages in the family Lamiaceae.
  • 1.3K
  • 04 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Near-Infrared Spectroscopy Coupled to Hyperspectral Imaging
Near-infrared (800–2500 nm; NIR) spectroscopy coupled to hyperspectral imaging (NIR-HSI) has greatly enhanced its capability and thus widened its application and use across various industries. This non-destructive technique that is sensitive to both physical and chemical attributes of virtually any material can be used for both qualitative and quantitative analyses.
  • 1.2K
  • 18 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Metabolomics
Metabolomics is the latest trend in the “-omics” sciences, of which technologies are widely used today in all life sciences. Metabolomics gave impetus to the description of biochemical processes that occur in many organisms by means of measuring of low molecular compounds by high-throughout technologies, search for new biomarkers of disease, and laid the foundation for new clinical laboratory diagnostics. The purpose of this entry is to show how metabolomics is represented in the science and to demonstrate the successes and main achievements of scientists in this field.
  • 1.2K
  • 15 Feb 2021
Topic Review
Plant Tolerance to Drought Stress
Increasing temperature leads to intensive water evaporation, contributing to global warming and consequently leading to drought stress. These events are likely to trigger modifications in plant physiology and microbial functioning due to the altered availability of nutrients. Plants exposed to drought have developed different strategies to cope with stress by morphological, physiological, anatomical, and biochemical responses.
  • 1.2K
  • 19 Oct 2021
Topic Review
Mobile Computing for Pest and Disease Management
The demand for mobile applications in agriculture is increasing as smartphones are continuously developed and used for many purposes; one of them is managing pests and diseases in crops. Using mobile applications, farmers can detect early infection and improve the specified treatment and precautions to prevent further infection from occurring. Furthermore, farmers can communicate with agricultural authorities to manage their farm from home, and efficiently obtain information such as the spectral signature of crops. Therefore, the spectral signature can be used as a reference to detect pests and diseases with a hyperspectral sensor more efficiently than the conventional method, which takes more time to monitor the entire crop field. 
  • 1.2K
  • 28 Apr 2022
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