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Topic Review
Greenery Systems
Urbanization, when it is not planned carefully, are highly effecting the urban heat island. To mitigate the problem, urbanization planning must take into consideration the implementation of greenery systems and sustainable ecosystems for buildings as part of the solution in addition to the outer space. The mitigation techniques that are influencing the urban heat index may be the greenery systems applied on buildings, or urban green spaces that include large land and large scale systems, such as lakes and parks. The objective of the current article is to compile, discusses and compare the previous studies on greenery systems, like green roofs and green walls, how they are supporting the energy saving and improve thermal conditions in the building sector, as well as improving the urban heat index. The fundamental  of greenery systems, which are thermal insulation, evapotranspiration, and shading effect, are also discussed. The benefits of greenery systems are including the improvement of stormwater management,  improvement of air quality, the reduction of sound pollution, the reduction of carbon dioxide, and the improvement of aesthetic building value. 
  • 4.2K
  • 29 Oct 2020
Topic Review
Greenhouse Gas Emissions Accounting
Greenhouse gas emissions accounting is measuring the amount of greenhouse gases (GHG) emitted during a given period of time by a polity, usually a country but sometimes a region or city. Such measures are used to conduct climate science and climate policy. There are two main, conflicting ways of measuring GHG emissions: production-based (also known as territorial-based) and consumption-based. Production-based emissions take place “within national territory and offshore areas over which the country has jurisdiction”. Consumption-based emissions take into account the effects of trade, encompassing the emissions from domestic final consumption and those caused by the production of its imports. From the perspective of trade, consumption-based emissions accounting is thus the reverse of production-based emissions accounting, which includes exports but excludes imports (Table 1). The choice of accounting method can have very important effects on policymaking, as each measure can generate a very different result. Thus, different values for a National greenhouse gas Emissions Inventory (NEI) could result in a country choosing different optimal mitigation activities, the wrong choice based on wrong information being potentially damaging. The application of production-based emissions accounting is currently favoured in policy terms as it is easier to measure, although much of the scientific literature favours consumption-based accounting. The former method is criticised in the literature principally for its inability to allocate emissions embodied in international trade/transportation and the potential for carbon leakage. Almost all countries in the world are parties to the Paris Agreement, which requires them to provide regular production-based GHG emissions inventories to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), in order to track both countries achievement of their nationally determined contributions and climate policies as well as regional climate policies such as the EU Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS), and the world's progress in limiting global warming. Under an earlier UNFCCC agreement greenhouse gas emissions by Turkey and greenhouse gas emissions by the United States will continue to be inventoried even if they are not parties to the Paris Agreement.
  • 768
  • 13 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Reservoirs
Reservoirs are manmade lakes created by building dams on rivers for various purposes: flood control, electricity generation, irrigation, water supply, aquaculture, environmental services, recreational activities, navigation etc. In freshwater ecosystems, several mechanisms are involved in the natural carbon cycle. They receive carbon from terrestrial ecosystems through drainage, capture the carbon through primary production, bury the carbon in sediments, emit GHG through biomass degradation and respiration, and transport the carbon downstream to the seas or oceans. GHG emissions can be increased by human activities around the ecosystem through sewage and agricultural pollution.
  • 817
  • 03 Nov 2021
Topic Review
Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Shipping
Recent years have seen growing interest among governments, practitioners and researchers towards measures and initiatives aimed to increase the environmental performance of international shipping. Main drivers of this "green revolution" are identifiable in the need to meet internationally agreed emissions targets but also in financial issues and external pressures due to increasing awareness on climate change and environmental preservation. In April 2018, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) agreed on the Initial IMO Strategy to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in the shipping sector. The Strategy includes a target to “reduce the total annual GHG emissions by at least 50 per cent by 2050 from 2008 levels whilst pursuing efforts towards phasing them out”. Being able to meet the ambitious decarbonization IMO’s targets is one of the major challenges the maritime industry has to face in decades. This contribution lists the most popular GHG emission reduction measures the shipping industry can adopt to try to cope with the new IMO's GHG requirements.
  • 827
  • 29 Oct 2020
Topic Review
Greenhouse Gases in Wastewater Collection Systems
Wastewater collection systems (WCSs) not only play an indispensable role in urban life but also significantly contribute to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Based on extensive literature research, this study summarizes current research on the production mechanisms, influencing factors, control techniques, and quantitative estimates of GHGs emitted from WCSs and presents initial estimates of total GHG emissions from WCSs in China. A variety of factors affect GHG production, but standard methods are still lacking to quantify GHG emissions from WCSs. China’s WCSs emit approximately 3.86–15.35 Mt of CO2eq annually (equivalent to 5.1–20.2% of the GHG emissions from wastewater treatment). Thus, GHG emissions from WCSs are significant and deserve attention. Control of GHGs in WCSs can be achieved through the application of chemical agents, while the construction of a green stormwater infrastructure can further facilitate GHG reductions. This research provides valuable insights for policymakers to consider in future policy planning related to GHG reduction and the improved operation of WCSs. Future research should focus on quantifying the impacts of various factors and accumulating field data on GHGs in various regions to facilitate the development of standardized calculation methods.
  • 290
  • 11 Jul 2023
Topic Review
Grey Water
Grey water (also spelled gray water in the United States) or sullage refers to wastewater generated in households or office buildings from streams without fecal contamination, i.e., all streams except for the wastewater from toilets. Sources of grey water include sinks, showers, baths, washing machines or dishwashers. As grey water contains fewer pathogens than domestic wastewater, it is generally safer to handle and easier to treat and reuse onsite for toilet flushing, landscape or crop irrigation, and other non-potable uses. The application of grey water reuse in urban water systems provides substantial benefits for both the water supply subsystem, by reducing the demand for fresh clean water, and the wastewater subsystems by reducing the amount of wastewater required to be conveyed and treated. Treated grey water has many uses, for example, toilet flushing or irrigation.
  • 1.8K
  • 04 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Grongar Hill
Grongar Hill is located in the Welsh county of Carmarthenshire and was the subject of a loco-descriptive poem by John Dyer. Published in two versions in 1726, during the Augustan period, its celebration of the individual experience of the landscape makes it a precursor of Romanticism. As a prospect poem, it has been the subject of continuing debate over how far it meets artistic canons.
  • 343
  • 27 Sep 2022
Topic Review
Ground Level Ozone
Ground level ozone (O3), also known as tropospheric ozone, is a trace gas of the troposphere (the lowest level of the Earth's atmosphere), with an average concentration of 20–30 parts per billion by volume (ppbv), with close to 100 ppbv in polluted areas. Ozone is also an important constituent of the stratosphere, where the ozone layer exists which is located between 10 and 50 kilometers above the Earth's surface. The troposphere extends from the ground up to a variable height of approximately 14 kilometers above sea level. Ozone is least concentrated in the ground layer (or planetary boundary layer) of the troposphere. Ground level or tropospheric ozone is created by chemical reactions between oxides of nitrogen (NOx gases) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). The combination of these chemicals in the presence of sunlight form ozone. Its concentration increases as height above sea level increases, with a maximum concentration at the tropopause. About 90% of total ozone in the atmosphere is in the stratosphere, and 10% is in the troposphere. Although tropospheric ozone is less concentrated than stratospheric ozone, it is of concern because of its health effects. Ozone in the troposphere is considered a greenhouse gas, and may contribute to global warming. Photochemical and chemical reactions involving ozone drive many of the chemical processes that occur in the troposphere by day and by night. At abnormally high concentrations (the largest source being emissions from combustion of fossil fuels), it is a pollutant, and a constituent of smog. Its levels have increased significantly since the industrial revolution, as NOx gasses and VOCs are some of the byproducts of combustion. With more heat and sunlight in the summer months, more ozone is formed which is why regions often experience higher levels of pollution in the summer months. Although the same molecule, ground level ozone can be harmful to our health, unlike stratospheric ozone that protects the earth from excess UV radiation. Photolysis of ozone occurs at wavelengths below approximately 310–320 nanometres. This reaction initiates the chain of chemical reactions that remove carbon monoxide, methane, and other hydrocarbons from the atmosphere via oxidation. Therefore, the concentration of tropospheric ozone affects how long these compounds remain in the air. If the oxidation of carbon monoxide or methane occur in the presence of nitrogen monoxide (NO), this chain of reactions has a net product of ozone added to the system.
  • 497
  • 28 Sep 2022
Topic Review
Ground-Penetrating Radar in Soil Studies
Information on the spatiotemporal variability of soil properties and states within the agricultural landscape is vital to identify management zones supporting precision agriculture (PA). Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) and electromagnetic induction (EMI) techniques have been applied to assess soil properties, states, processes, and their spatiotemporal variability. 
  • 7.7K
  • 14 Jun 2023
Topic Review
Groundwater Depletion and Degradation in North China Plain
Groundwater is an important natural resource in the North China Plain (NCP) with high economic benefits and social significance. It fulfills 60% of drinking and 70% of irrigation water requirements. Groundwater becomes unsafe for human consumption due to pollution caused by inappropriate waste disposal, industrial discharges, and agricultural runoff.
  • 160
  • 24 Jan 2024
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