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Topic Review
Biomethane Production of Distillery Stillage
Distillery stillage has a high energy potential (13.6 MJ/kg TS, 10.4 MJ/kg COD), which indicates that it can be processed via anaerobic digestion and is a suitable substrate for conversion into energy. Distillery stillage consists of compounds that are easily biodegraded during anaerobic digestion, such as proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates. Among the carbohydrates, the concentration of cellulose can be on the level of 32.2%, hemicelluloses—20.9%, and lignin—3.2% in the distillery stillage obtained from maize.
  • 884
  • 16 Nov 2021
Topic Review
Contaminants of Emerging Concern
Worldwide, the pollution of water bodies by contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) such as pharmaceuticals, endocrine disrupting compounds, flame retardants including brominated flame retardants (BFRs) and perfluorochemicals (PFCs), microplastics, nanomaterials, and algal toxins, to name just a few, is creating a new set of challenges to the conventional wastewater treatment facilities, which demonstrate inefficiency in removing/degrading many CECs. As a consequence, environmentalists started to detect the presence of some of those contaminants at alarming levels in certain countries, with possible negative effects on aquatic species and often increased potential for human health risks through exposure to the contaminated waters, or the reuse of treated wastewater in agriculture and household use. Such issues are more accentuated in the African continent due to various socio-economic problems giving rise to poor sanitation systems and serious shortages in wastewater treatment plants in many regions, making it difficult to tackle the problem of conventional pollutants, let alone to deal with the more challenging CECs. Thus, in order to effectively deal with this emerging environmental threat, African researchers are working to develop and optimize sound sampling and analytical procedures, risk assessment models, and efficient remediation technologies.
  • 882
  • 06 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Soil Biology in the Ecuadorian Amazon
For many decades the Ecuadorian Amazon has been used as source of resources for cities both at national and international level. These facts had important consequences and environmental impacts, affecting from the smallest living organisms of the soil to the indigenous communities and peoples that inhabit the Amazon rainforest, as well as the flora and fauna biodiversity. With the change in land use, the Amazonian territory has been progressively affected and it is gradually decreasing, leaving behind poor soils.  Production conditions result modified by the implementation of large monocultures and livestock systems, a situation that directly affects soil and soil fauna. For this reason, we considered interesting to study, understand and compare the behavior of building organisms in natural and intervened areas, through sampling, inventories and laboratory analysis with the aim of developing and implementing production systems (chakras, agroforestry or silvopastoral systems), which benefit both the small producer and the ecosystem and life that inhabits it. Since there are no easily available compiled papers regarding the "Soil Biology in the Ecuadorian Amazon" in this work we collect information that allows us to offer a framework on the topics of changes in land use, typology of Amazonian soils and its main inhabitats organisms. All these date let to be considered as evidences of the degree of the health/disturbance of the corresponding soils.
  • 881
  • 28 Oct 2020
Topic Review
Emissions Budget
An emissions budget, carbon budget, emissions quota, or allowable emissions, is an upper limit of total carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions associated with remaining below a specific global average temperature. An emissions budget may also be associated with objectives for other related climate variables, such as radiative forcing. Global emissions budgets are calculated according to historical cumulative emissions from fossil fuel combustion, industrial processes, and land-use change, but vary according to the global temperature target that is chosen, the probability of staying below that target, and the emission of other non-CO2 greenhouse gases (GHGs). Global emissions budgets can be further divided into national emissions budgets, so that countries can set specific climate mitigation goals. Emissions budgets are relevant to climate change mitigation because they indicate a finite amount of carbon dioxide that can be emitted over time, before resulting in dangerous levels of global warming. Change in global temperature is independent from the geographic location of these emissions, and is largely independent of the timing of these emissions. In line with the 2018 Special report on Global Warming of 1.5° C by the IPCC, the Mercator Research Institute on Global Commons and Climate Change estimates that the CO2 budget associated with 1.5 °C degrees of warming will be exhausted in 2028 if emissions remain on the current level of the late 2010s. Beyond a 1.5°C temperature rise, the risk of long-lasting and irreversible consequences of climate change increases. An emissions budget may be distinguished from an emissions target, as an emissions target may be internationally or nationally set in accordance with objectives other than a specific global temperature. This includes targets created for their political palatability, rather than ones focused on climate science warnings.
  • 881
  • 14 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Fouling Prevention in Membranes by Radiation-Induced Graft Copolymerization
The application of membrane processes in various fields has now undergone accelerated developments, despite the presence of some hurdles impacting the process efficiency. Fouling is arguably the main hindrance for a wider implementation of polymeric membranes, particularly in pressure-driven membrane processes, causing higher costs of energy, operation, and maintenance. Radiation induced graft copolymerization (RIGC) is a powerful versatile technique for covalently imparting selected chemical functionalities to membranes’ surfaces, providing a potential solution to fouling problems. 
  • 878
  • 17 Jan 2022
Topic Review
Real Driving Emissions
Air pollution caused by vehicle emissions has raised serious public health concerns. Vehicle emissions generally depend on many factors, such as the nature of the vehicle, driving style, traffic conditions, emission control technologies, and operational conditions. Concerns about the certification cycles used by various regulatory authorities are growing due to the difference in emission during certification procedure and Real Driving Emissions (RDE). Under laboratory conditions, certification tests are performed in a ‘chassis dynamometer’ for light-duty vehicles (LDVs) and an ‘engine dynamometer’ for heavy-duty vehicles (HDVs). As a result, the test drive cycles used to measure the automotive emissions do not correctly reflect the vehicle’s real-world driving pattern. Consequently, the RDE regulation is being phased to reduce the disparity between type approval and vehicle’s real-world emissions. According to this review, different variables such as traffic signals, driving dynamics, congestions, altitude, ambient temperature, and so on have a major influence on actual driving pollution. Aside from that, cold-start and hot-start have been shown to affect on-road pollution. Contrary to common opinion, new technology such as start-stop systems boost automotive emissions rather than decreasing them owing to unfavourable conditions from the point of view of exhaust emissions and exhaust after-treatment systems. In addition, the driving dynamics are not represented in the current laboratory-based test procedures. As a result, it is critical to establish an on-road testing protocol to obtain a true representation of vehicular emissions and reduce emissions to a standard level. The incorporation of RDE clauses into certification procedures would have a positive impact on global air quality. 
  • 878
  • 02 Aug 2021
Topic Review
Solar Energy Technologies' Sustainable Development towards Solar Photovoltaics
Renewable energy was available in rural areas in the form of wind farms, solar plants, biomass plants and others. In urban contexts, particularly with the use of solar energy technologies called solar energy systems in buildings, such as solar thermal and photovoltaic (PV). The viewpoints on solar energy technologies for sustainable development is  particular to emphasis on photovoltaic (PV), as well as the solar energy technology performance, in order to ascertain worldwide solar energy adoption trends. 
  • 878
  • 29 Apr 2022
Topic Review
Climate State
Climate state describes a state of climate on Earth and similar terrestrial planets based on a thermal energy budget, such as the greenhouse or icehouse climate state. The main climate state change is between periodical glacial and interglacial cycles in Earth history, studied from climate proxies. The climate system is responding to the current climate forcing and adjusts following climate sensitivity to reach a climate equilibrium, Earth's energy balance. Model simulations suggest that the current interglacial climate state will continue for at least another 100,000 years, due to CO2 emissions - including complete deglaciation of the Northern Hemisphere.
  • 878
  • 16 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Tropical Ecology
Tropical ecology is the study of the relationships between the biotic and abiotic components of the tropics, or the area of the Earth that lies between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn (23.4378° N and 23.4378° S, respectively). The tropical climate experiences hot, humid weather and rainfall year-round. While many might associate the region solely with the rainforests, the tropics are home to a wide variety of ecosystems that boast a great wealth of biodiversity, from exotic animal species to seldom-found flora. Tropical ecology began with the work of early English naturalists and eventually saw the establishment of research stations throughout the tropics devoted to exploring and documenting these exotic landscapes. The burgeoning ecological study of the tropics has led to increased conservation education and programs devoted to the climate. This climatic zone offers numerous advantages to ecologists conducting a wide array of studies, from rich biodiversity to vast lands untainted by man.
  • 877
  • 14 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Winkler Index
The Winkler Index, sometimes known as the Winkler Scale or Winkler Regions, is a technique for classifying the climate of wine growing regions based on heat summation or growing degree-days. In the system, geographical areas are divided into five climate regions based on temperature converted to growing degree-days, and is commonly known as Regions I–V (see below). The system was developed at the University of California, Davis by A. J. Winkler and Maynard Amerine.
  • 875
  • 27 Sep 2022
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