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Topic Review
Lipid-Based Nanoparticles
COVID-19 vaccines have been developed with unprecedented speed which would not have been possible without decades of fundamental research on delivery nanotechnology. Lipid-based nanoparticles have played a pivotal role in the successes of COVID-19 vaccines and many other nanomedicines, such as Doxil® and Onpattro®, and have therefore been considered as the frontrunner in nanoscale drug delivery systems. In this review, we aim to highlight the progress in the development of these lipid nanoparticles for various applications, ranging from cancer nanomedicines to COVID-19 vaccines. The lipid-based nanoparticles discussed in this review are liposomes, niosomes, transfersomes, solid lipid nanoparticles, and nanostructured lipid carriers. We particularly focus on the innovations that have obtained regulatory approval or that are in clinical trials. We also discuss the physicochemical properties required for specific applications, highlight the differences in requirements for the delivery of different cargos, and introduce current challenges that need further development. This review serves as a useful guideline for designing new lipid nanoparticles for both preventative and therapeutic vaccines including immunotherapies.
  • 6.7K
  • 19 May 2021
Topic Review
Social Construction of Disability
The social construction of disability comes from a paradigm of ideas that suggest that society's beliefs about a particular community, group or population are grounded in the power structures inherent in a society at any given time. These are often steeped in historical representations of the issue and social expectations surrounding concepts such as disability, thereby enabling a social construct around what society deems disabled and healthy. Ideas surrounding disability stem from societal attitudes, often connected to who is deserving or undeserving, and deemed productive to society at any given time. For example, in the medieval period, a person's moral behavior established disability. Disability was a divine punishment or side effect of a moral failing; being physically or biologically different was not enough to be considered disabled. Only during the European Enlightenment did society change its definition of disability to be more related to biology. However, what most Western Europeans considered to be healthy determined the new biological definition of health.
  • 6.7K
  • 11 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Social Inertia
Social inertia refers to the tendency of social systems to resist change and maintain their existing state of equilibrium. It encompasses the collective reluctance or resistance within a society to adopt new ideas, practices, or norms, even in the face of external pressures or opportunities for change. Social inertia can arise from various factors, including cultural traditions, institutional structures, and psychological biases, and it often presents challenges for efforts to enact social reform or innovation.
  • 6.7K
  • 08 Feb 2024
Topic Review
Classification of the Marine Selective Catalytic Reduction Systems
The marine SCR system is mainly composed of a urea solution injection system, mixer, SCR reactor, measurement system, and soot blowing system. The urea solution injection system is composed of a urea storage tank, urea injection pump, nozzle, valve, and pipeline. Additionally, a static mixer is arranged in the exhaust pipe of the marine SCR system to improve the mixing uniformity of exhaust gas and ammonia gas. 
  • 6.7K
  • 18 May 2022
Topic Review
Artificial Intelligence in Archaeology
Artificial Intelligence (AI), due to its increasingly powerful predictive capabilities, is showing an increasing trend in attracting widespread interest in many sciences. Archaeologists now can more fully exploit the knowledge from an extensive amount of archaeological data with the use of artificial intelligence in such a way as to make decisions related to appropriate strategies for the preservation and protection of archaeological elements, as well as to decide on the most ideal point excavation in a complex cultural landscape. 
  • 6.7K
  • 30 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Li7La3Zr2O12 (LLZO): An Overview
Li7La3Zr2O12 (LLZO) is an inorganic garnet type solid electrolyte which has proven to be one of the most promising electrolytes because of its high ionic conductivity at room temperature, low activation energy, good chemical and electrochemical stability, and wide potential window.
  • 6.7K
  • 03 Aug 2021
Topic Review
Carbon fiber-reinforced Thermoplastic polymers
Carbon fiber-reinforced thermoplastic polymers are considered a promising composite for many industrial applications including in the automation, renewable energy, and aerospace industries. They exhibit exceptional properties such as a high strength-to-weight ratio and high wear resistance and stiffness, which give them an advantage over other conventional materials such as metals.
  • 6.7K
  • 17 Aug 2021
Topic Review
Reverse Water Gas Shift Reaction
The catalytic conversion of CO2 to CO by the reverse water gas shift (RWGS) reaction followed by well-established synthesis gas conversion technologies could be a practical technique to convert CO2 to valuable chemicals and fuels in industrial settings. For catalyst developers, prevention of side reactions like methanation, low-temperature activity, and selectivity enhancements for the RWGS reaction are crucial concerns. Cerium oxide (ceria, CeO2) has received considerable attention due to its exceptional physical and chemical properties. 
  • 6.7K
  • 09 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Pine Ridge Indian Reservation
The Pine Ridge Indian Reservation (Template:Lang-lkt), also called Pine Ridge Agency, is an Oglala Lakota Native American reservation located in the U.S. state of South Dakota. Originally included within the territory of the Great Sioux Reservation, Pine Ridge was created by the Act of March 2, 1889, 25 Stat. 888. in the southwest corner of South Dakota on the Nebraska border. Today it consists of 3,468.85 sq mi (8,984.3 km2) of land area and is the eighth-largest reservation in the United States, larger than Delaware and Rhode Island combined. The reservation encompasses the entirety of Oglala Lakota County and Bennett County, the southern half of Jackson County, and a small section of Sheridan County added by Executive Order No. 2980 of February 20, 1904. Of the 3,142 counties in the United States, these are among the poorest. Only 84,000 acres (340 km2) of land are suitable for agriculture. The 2000 census population of the reservation was 15,521; but a study conducted by Colorado State University and accepted by the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development has estimated the resident population to reach 28,787. Pine Ridge is the site of several events that mark milestones in the history between the Sioux of the area and the United States (U.S.) government. Stronghold Table—a mesa in what is today the Oglala-administered portion of Badlands National Park—was the location of the last of the Ghost Dances. The U.S. authorities' attempt to repress this movement eventually led to the Wounded Knee Massacre on December 29, 1890. A mixed band of Miniconjou Lakota and Hunkpapa Sioux, led by Chief Spotted Elk, sought sanctuary at Pine Ridge after fleeing the Standing Rock Agency, where Sitting Bull had been killed during efforts to arrest him. The families were intercepted by a heavily armed detachment of the Seventh Cavalry, which attacked them, killing many women and children as well as warriors. This was the last large engagement between U.S. forces and Native Americans and marked the end of the western frontier. Changes accumulated in the last quarter of the 20th century; in 1971 the Oglala Sioux Tribe (OST) started Oglala Lakota College, a tribal college, which offers 4-year degrees. In 1973 decades of discontent at the Pine Ridge Reservation resulted in a grassroots protest that escalated into the Wounded Knee Incident, gaining national attention. Members of the Oglala Lakota, the American Indian Movement and supporters occupied the town in defiance of federal and state law enforcement in a protest that turned into an armed standoff lasting 71 days. This event inspired American Indians across the country and gradually led to changes at the reservation, with a revival of some cultural traditions. In 1981 the Lakota Tim Giago started the Lakota Times at Pine Ridge, the first independent Native American newspaper in the nation; he published it until selling it in 1998. Located at the southern end of the Badlands, the reservation is part of the mixed grass prairie, an ecological transition zone between the short-grass and tall-grass prairies; all are part of the Great Plains. A great variety of plant and animal life flourishes on and adjacent to the reservation, including the endangered black-footed ferret. The area is also important in the field of paleontology; it contains deposits of Pierre Shale formed on the seafloor of the Western Interior Seaway, evidence of the marine Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary, and one of the largest deposits of fossils of extinct mammals from the Oligocene epoch.
  • 6.7K
  • 07 Oct 2022
Topic Review
First Generation of Intellectual Movements in Iran
First Generation of Intellectual movements in Iran (Persian: نسل اول جنبش های روشنفکری در ایران‎, romanized: Nasl-e Aval-e Jonbesh Hay-e Roshan Fekri dar Iran) or Iranian Enlightenment (Persian: روشنگری ایرانی‎, romanized: Roshangari-e Irani) was a period in the mid-19th- to early-20th- century in Iran, which was accompanied by new ideas in the traditional Iranian society. During the rule of the Qajar dynasty, and especially after the defeat of Iran, in the war with the Russian Empire, due to cultural exchanges, new ideas were formed among the educated class of Iran. This military defeat also encouraged the Qajar commanders to overcome the backwardness. The establishment of Dar ul-Fonun, the first modern university in Iran and the arrival of foreign professors, caused the thoughts of European thinkers to enter Iran, followed by the first signs of enlightenment and intellectual movements in Iran. During this period, intellectual groups were formed in Secret societies and secret associations. Among these Secret societies, we can mention Mirza Malkam Khan's "Faramosh Khaneh" (based on Masonic lodges), Anjoman-e Bagh-e Meykadeh, Society of Humanity and Mokhadarat Vatan Association. These groups spread their ideas by distributing leaflets and newspapers. These secret societies stressed the need to reform the land and administrative system and reduce the role of the clergy in society, as well as to limit the rulers within the framework of the law. Iranian thinkers based their work on confronting religious traditions, they were confronted with Shia Islam, which on the one hand was mixed with superstitions, and on the other hand, the strictness and intellectual prejudice of some religious people caused intellectual-scientific decline. Among the thinkers of this period were Mirza Malkam Khan, Mirza Abdul'Rahim Talibov, Mirza Fatali Akhundov, Iraj Mirza, Mirzadeh Eshghi, Aref Qazvini, Mirza Hassan Roshdieh, Mirza Aqa Khan Kermani, Hassan Taqizadeh, Amir Kabir and Haydar Khan Amo-oghli. Most of these intellectuals expressed their thoughts through poetry and fiction, simple stories and parables that were easier for people to understand helped to spread Enlightenment throughout Iran. The first generation of intellectuals in Iran went beyond the borders of this country and influenced neighboring countries such as Afghanistan and the Arab world such as Egypt. People like Jamāl al-Dīn al-Afghānī collaborated with most of the great thinkers of this period from Iran.
  • 6.7K
  • 05 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Fedora (Operating System)
Fedora is a Linux distribution developed by the community-supported Fedora Project which is sponsored primarily by Red Hat, a subsidiary of IBM, with additional support from other companies. Fedora contains software distributed under various free and open-source licenses and aims to be on the leading edge of free technologies. Fedora is the upstream source of the commercial Red Hat Enterprise Linux distribution and for CentOS. Fedora is a fork of Red Hat Linux since RHL was discontinued in 2003. Since the release of Fedora 30, five different editions are currently available: Workstation, focused on the personal computer, Server for servers, CoreOS, focused on cloud computing, Silverblue, focused on an immutable desktop specialized to container-based workflows and IoT, focused on IoT devices. (As of February 2016), Fedora has an estimated 1.2 million users, including Linus Torvalds ((As of May 2020)), creator of the Linux kernel.
  • 6.7K
  • 27 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Vectors in Gene Therapy for Pulmonary Diseases
Over the past decades, a better understanding of the genetic and molecular alterations underlying several respiratory diseases has encouraged the development of new therapeutic strategies. Gene therapy offers new therapeutic alternatives for inherited and acquired diseases by delivering exogenous genetic materials into cells or tissues to restore physiological protein expression and/or activity.
  • 6.7K
  • 16 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Pet Husbandry
Pet husbandry is the practices applied in day-to-day care of animal companions, which can greatly impact animal welfare. Pet husbandry include: (1) origin of pets; (2) number and type of pets in the household; (3) diet type and feeding practices; (4) living environment and daily activities; (5) preventive treatment for parasites and vaccination; (6) regular veterinary check-ups and access to health care; and (7) compliance with legal requirements and identification.
  • 6.7K
  • 29 Oct 2020
Topic Review
Ex Nihilo
Ex nihilo is Latin for "out of nothing": when phrased as ex nihilo nihil fit, "nothing comes from nothing", it means that the universe was formed from eternal matter; as creatio ex nihilo, "creation out of nothing", it means that matter is not eternal but had to be created by some eternal uncaused cause, frequently defined as God. Creation ex nihilo is a theistic answer to the question of how the universe comes to exist: the Big Bang theory, by contrast, is a scientific theory; it offers no explanation of cosmic existence but only a description of the first few moments of that existence.
  • 6.7K
  • 28 Sep 2022
Topic Review
Aero L-159 Alca
The Aero L-159 ALCA[nb 1] is a subsonic light combat aircraft and advanced trainer developed in the single-seat L-159A and two-seat L-159B versions respectively, produced in the Czech Republic by Aero Vodochody. In 2003, the Czech Air Force fleet of 72 L-159A aircraft was reduced to 24 due to budget constraints. After several years of storage, the government has re-sold most of the redundant aircraft to both military and civilian operators, namely the Iraqi Air Force and Draken International. The L-159 has seen active combat use by the Iraqi Air Force against ISIS. In Draken's service, the L-159 (colloquially known as "Honey Badger") has been employed as an aggressor aircraft. Since 2007, six L-159A aircraft have been rebuilt into T1 trainer derivatives. In 2017, Aero Vodochody unveiled a newly built L-159T1 for the Iraqi Air Force while the Czech Air Force is set to acquire L-159T2 two-seaters.
  • 6.7K
  • 29 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Hindu Views on Monotheism
Hinduism incorporates diverse views on the concept of God. Different traditions of Hinduism have different theistic views, and these views have been described by scholars as polytheism, monotheism, henotheism, panentheism, pantheism, monism, agnostic, humanism, atheism or Nontheism. Monotheism is the belief in a single creator God and the lack of belief in any other Creator. Hinduism is not a monolithic faith and different sects may or may not posit or require such a belief. Religion is considered a personal belief in Hinduism and followers are free to choose the different interpretations within the framework of Karma and reincarnation. Many forms of Hinduism believe in a monotheistic God, such as Krishna followers, Vedanta, Arya samaj, Samkhya school of Vedas etc, Many traditions within Hinduism share the Vedic idea of a metaphysical ultimate reality and truth called Brahman instead. According to Jan Gonda, Brahman denoted the "power immanent in the sound, words, verses and formulas of Vedas" in the earliest Vedic texts. The early Vedic religious understanding of Brahman underwent a series of abstractions in the Hindu scriptures that followed the Vedic scriptures. These scriptures would reveal a vast body of insights into the nature of Brahman as originally revealed in the Vedas. These Hindu traditions that emerged from or identified with the Vedic scriptures and that maintained the notion of a metaphysical ultimate reality would identify that ultimate reality as Brahman. Hindu adherents to these traditions within Hinduism revere Hindu deities and, indeed, all of existence, as aspects of the Brahman. The deities in Hinduism are not considered to be almighty, omnipotent, omniscient and omnibenevolent, and spirituality is considered to be seeking the ultimate truth that is possible by a number of paths. Like other Indian religions, in Hinduism, deities are born, they live and they die in every kalpa (eon, cycle of existence). In Hindu philosophy, there are many different schools. Its non-theist traditions such as Samkhya, early Nyaya, Mimamsa and many within Vedanta such as Advaita do not posit the existence of an almighty, omnipotent, omniscient, omnibenevolent God (monotheistic God), while its theistic traditions posit a personal God left to the choice of the Hindu. The major schools of Hindu philosophy explain morality and the nature of existence through the karma and samsara doctrines, as in other Indian religions. Contemporary Hinduism can be categorized into four major traditions: Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. Vaishnavism, Shaivism, and Shaktism worship Vishnu, Shiva, and Devi — the Divine Mother — as the Supreme respectively, or consider all Hindu deities as aspects of the formless Supreme Reality or Brahman. Other minor sects such as Ganapatya and Saura focus on Ganesha and Surya as the Supreme. A sub-tradition within the Vaishnavism school of Hinduism that is an exception is dualistic Dvaita, founded by Madhvacharya in the 13th-century (where Vishnu as Krishna is a monotheistic God). This tradition posits a concept of monotheistic God so similar to Christianity that Christian missionaries in colonial India suggested that Madhvacharya was likely influenced by early Christians who migrated to India, a theory that has been discredited by scholars. Furthermore, many adherents consider these similarities to be superficial and insubstantial; for example, Madhvacharya postulates three co-eternal fundamental realities, consisting of Supreme Being (Vishnu or paramathma), individual souls (jīvātman), and inanimate matter.
  • 6.7K
  • 15 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Fundamentals of Chlorine Disinfection
Chlorine first reacts with organic and inorganic matters before pathogens inactivation. The amount of chlorine consumed in this process is termed chlorine demand. The combined chlorine that forms together with any free available chlorine in the water is called the chlorine residual. This is the component of the added chlorine that disinfects the water. Free available chlorine is formed by differences in the concentrations of hypochlorous and hypochlorite ions, a process that depends on the pH of the water. Even though the chlorination procedure is well-researched, establishing an appropriate chlorine dose remains a difficult task for many field applications. Nevertheless, the effective chlorine dose should be sufficient to destroy pathogens and oxidize the organic contaminants as well as maintain sufficient free available chlorine in the water distribution system, post-chlorination.
  • 6.7K
  • 06 Jun 2022
Topic Review
Word Lists by Frequency
Word lists by frequency are lists of a language's words grouped by frequency of occurrence within some given text corpus, either by levels or as a ranked list, serving the purpose of vocabulary acquisition. A word list by frequency "provides a rational basis for making sure that learners get the best return for their vocabulary learning effort" (Nation 1997), but is mainly intended for course writers, not directly for learners. Frequency lists are also made for lexicographical purposes, serving as a sort of checklist to ensure that common words are not left out. Some major pitfalls are the corpus content, the corpus register, and the definition of "word". While word counting is a thousand years old, with still gigantic analysis done by hand in the mid-20th century, natural language electronic processing of large corpora such as movie subtitles (SUBTLEX megastudy) has accelerated the research field. In computational linguistics, a frequency list is a sorted list of words (word types) together with their frequency, where frequency here usually means the number of occurrences in a given corpus, from which the rank can be derived as the position in the list.
  • 6.7K
  • 29 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Non-Ionic Surfactants
Surfactants are essential in the manufacture of polymeric nanoparticles by emulsion formation methods and to preserve the stability of carriers in liquid media. The deposition of non-ionic surfactants at the interface allows a considerable reduction of the globule of the emulsion with high biocompatibility and the possibility of oscillating the final sizes in a wide nanometric range.
  • 6.7K
  • 29 Jun 2021
Topic Review Peer Reviewed
Teachers’ Professional Digital Competence
Teachers’ professional digital competence (PDC) refers to digital competence specific to the teaching profession. PDC serves a dual purpose: it encompasses a range of instrumental, professional, ethical, critical, and epistemic dimensions related to, on the one hand, teaching with digital tools and resources and, on the other hand, teaching pupils about digital technologies, digital skills, digital cultural expression, and broader digital and critical competences relevant to study, work, and everyday life. Teachers’ PDC is a dynamic concept that evolves in step with societal development and technological advancement.
  • 6.7K
  • 17 Sep 2025
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