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Topic Review
Cyber Security Standards
Cybersecurity standards (also styled cyber security standards) are techniques generally set forth in published materials that attempt to protect the cyber environment of a user or organization. This environment includes users themselves, networks, devices, all software, processes, information in storage or transit, applications, services, and systems that can be connected directly or indirectly to networks. The principal objective is to reduce the risks, including prevention or mitigation of cyber-attacks. These published materials consist of collections of tools, policies, security concepts, security safeguards, guidelines, risk management approaches, actions, training, best practices, assurance and technologies.
  • 1.7K
  • 09 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Human Milk Oligosaccharides (HMOs)
Human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs) are non-digestible and structurally diverse complex carbohydrates that are highly abundant in human milk. To date, more than 200 different HMO structures have been identified. Their concentrations in human milk vary according to various factors such as lactation period, mother’s genetic secretor status, and length of gestation (term or preterm).
  • 1.7K
  • 26 Aug 2021
Topic Review
Multiple Sclerosis
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic autoimmune disease affecting the central nervous system (CNS), caused by genetic and environmental factors. It is characterized by intermittent and recurrent episodes of inflammation that result in the demyelination and subsequent damage of the underlying axons present in the brain, optic nerve and spinal cord [1][2][3].
  • 1.7K
  • 22 Apr 2021
Topic Review
Anaerobic Digestion
Anaerobic digestion is a well-known technology with wide application in the treatment of high-strength organic wastes. The oxidation of the organic material is carried out in the absences of oxygen by microorganisms leading to the release of biogas with methane and carbon dioxide being the main components. The microbial process also produces a slurry known as digestate. This stream contains recalcitrant compounds, complex polymeric substances and biomass residual material .
  • 1.7K
  • 06 Mar 2021
Topic Review
Electrodialysis Bipolar Membrane for Reverse-Osmosis Concentrate Recovery
Electrochemical processes such as electrodialysis (ED) and electrodialysis bipolar membrane (EDBM) can contribute to soft-water production and the evaluation of waste fluxes. EDBM is a new technology that combines the separation function of electrodialysis with water separation at the bipolar membrane interface, which can convert salts into corresponding acids and bases without adding external components. In this system, anions and cations are separated from wastewater separately and combined with H+ and OH− ions via bipolar membranes to form acidic and alkaline solutions.
  • 1.7K
  • 14 Jan 2022
Topic Review
Methods of Improving Male Athletes Reactive Strength Index
The reactive strength index (RSI) describes the individual’s capability to quickly change from an eccentric muscular contraction to a concentric one and can be used to monitor, assess, and reduce the risk of athlete’s injury. Interventions with plyometric training routines have a relatively large, statistically significant overall effect in both adult and youth athletes. Thus, evidence supports implementing these types of interventions at an early age, in order to better cope with the physical demands of the various sports. Resistance training seems to have less impact on trained adult athletes; therefore, trained adult athletes should seek to have a more power-type training to improve the RSI.
  • 1.7K
  • 28 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Medication-associated Osteonecrosis of the Jaw
Medication-related osteonecrosis of the jaw (MON, MRONJ) is progressive death of the jawbone in a person exposed to a medications known to increase the risk of disease, in the absence of a previous radiation treatment. It may lead to surgical complication in the form of impaired wound healing following oral and maxillofacial surgery, periodontal surgery, or endodontic therapy. Particular medications can result in MRONJ, a serious but uncommon side effect in certain individuals. Such medications are frequently used to treat diseases that cause bone resorption such as osteoporosis, or to treat cancer. The main groups of drugs involved are anti-resorptive drugs, and anti-angiogenic drugs. This condition was previously known as bisphosphonate-related osteonecrosis of the jaw because osteonecrosis of the jaws correlating with bisphosphate treatment was frequently encountered, with its first incident occurring in 2003. Denosumab, another antiresorptive drug were also related to this condition. However, newer medications such as anti-angiogenic drugs has been established over the years which were reported to be related to osteonecrosis of the jaw as a side-effect too, hence this condition has been renamed as MRONJ. BON was been nicknamed "bis-phossy jaw" based on its similarity with phossy jaw. There is no known prevention for bisphosphonate-associated osteonecrosis of the jaw. Avoiding the use of bisphosphonates is not a viable preventive strategy on a general-population basis because the medications are beneficial in the treatment and prevention of osteoporosis (including prevention of bony fractures) and treatment of bone cancers. It usually develops after dental treatments involving exposure of bone or trauma, or may arise spontaneously. Patients who develop MRONJ may experience prolonged healing, pain, swelling, infection, exposed bone, after dental procedures, though some patients may have no signs/symptoms.
  • 1.7K
  • 19 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Non-Standard Analysis
The history of calculus is fraught with philosophical debates about the meaning and logical validity of fluxions or infinitesimal numbers. The standard way to resolve these debates is to define the operations of calculus using epsilon–delta procedures rather than infinitesimals. Non-standard analysis instead reformulates the calculus using a logically rigorous notion of infinitesimal numbers. Non-standard analysis was originated in the early 1960s by the mathematician Abraham Robinson. He wrote: "... the idea of infinitely small or infinitesimal quantities seems to appeal naturally to our intuition. At any rate, the use of infinitesimals was widespread during the formative stages of the Differential and Integral Calculus. As for the objection ... that the distance between two distinct real numbers cannot be infinitely small, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz argued that the theory of infinitesimals implies the introduction of ideal numbers which might be infinitely small or infinitely large compared with the real numbers but which were to possess the same properties as the latter". Robinson argued that this law of continuity of Leibniz's is a precursor of the transfer principle. Robinson continued: "However, neither he nor his disciples and successors were able to give a rational development leading up to a system of this sort. As a result, the theory of infinitesimals gradually fell into disrepute and was replaced eventually by the classical theory of limits." "It is shown in this book that Leibniz's ideas can be fully vindicated and that they lead to a novel and fruitful approach to classical Analysis and to many other branches of mathematics. The key to our method is provided by the detailed analysis of the relation between mathematical languages and mathematical structures which lies at the bottom of contemporary model theory." In 1973, intuitionist Arend Heyting praised non-standard analysis as "a standard model of important mathematical research".
  • 1.7K
  • 17 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Potential Application of Fungal Pigments
Fungal pigments are produced as secondary metabolites when essential nutrients in the culture medium are depleted or the environment is unfavorable for growth. Since natural pigments have benefits over synthetic pigments, their popularity has grown considerably. It has been demonstrated that fungi are a reliable, accessible, alternative supply of natural pigments. Applications for fungal pigments include food coloring, antimicrobial defense, antioxidant agents, cancer prevention, and so on.
  • 1.7K
  • 11 Apr 2023
Topic Review
Tomato Spotted Wilt Virus in Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum)
Tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV) is one of the most destructive diseases affecting tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) cultivation and production worldwide. As defenses against TSWV, natural resistance genes have been identified in tomato, including Sw-1a, Sw-1b, sw-2, sw-3, sw-4, Sw-5, Sw-6, and Sw-7. However, only Sw-5 exhibits a high level of resistance to the TSWV. Thus, it has been cloned and widely used in the breeding of tomato with resistance to the disease. Due to the global spread of TSWV, resistance induced by Sw-5 decreases over time and can be overcome or broken by a high concentration of TSWV. How to utilize other resistance genes and identify novel resistance resources are key approaches for breeding tomato with resistance to TSWV. In this review, the characteristics of natural resistance genes, natural resistance resources, molecular markers for assisted selection, and methods for evaluating resistance to TSWV are summarized. The aim is to provide a theoretical basis for identifying, utilizing resistance genes, and developing tomato varieties that are resistant to TSWV.
  • 1.7K
  • 19 Apr 2022
Topic Review
Nitrate–Nitrite–Nitric Oxide Pathway in Plants
Oxygen (O2) is the most crucial substrate for numerous biochemical processes in plants. Its deprivation is a critical factor that affects plant growth and may lead to death if it lasts for a long time. However, various biotic and abiotic factors cause O2 deprivation, leading to hypoxia and anoxia in plant tissues. To survive under hypoxia and/or anoxia, plants deploy various mechanisms such as fermentation paths, reactive oxygen species (ROS), reactive nitrogen species (RNS), antioxidant enzymes, aerenchyma, and adventitious root formation, while nitrate (NO3−), nitrite (NO2−), and nitric oxide (NO) have shown numerous beneficial roles through modulating these mechanisms. However, the end product of nitrate-nitrite-nitric oxide pathway, the NO is toxic if accumulated. Thus, its scavenging or inhibition is equally important for plant survival.
  • 1.7K
  • 14 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Eggshell Membrane for Bone Regeneration
The physicochemical features of the avian eggshell membrane play an essential role in the process of calcium carbonate deposition during shell mineralization, giving rise to a porous mineralized tissue with remarkable mechanical properties and biological functions. The membrane could be useful by itself or as a bi-dimensional scaffold to build future bone-regenerative materials.
  • 1.7K
  • 24 Mar 2023
Topic Review
Adsorbing Materials for Fluoride Removal
In recent years, there has been an increase in public perception of the detrimental side-effects of fluoride to human health due to its effects on teeth and bones. Today, there is a plethora of techniques available for the removal of fluoride from drinking water. Among them, adsorption is a very prospective method because of its handy operation, cost efficiency, and high selectivity. 
  • 1.7K
  • 12 Jul 2021
Topic Review
Development, Phenotype and Macrophage Niche of Kupffer Cells
Macrophages are key participants in the maintenance of tissue homeostasis under normal and pathological conditions, and implement a rich diversity of functions. The largest population of resident tissue macrophages is found in the liver. Hepatic macrophages, termed Kupffer cells, are involved in the regulation of multiple liver functionalities. Kupffer cells (KCs), the resident liver macrophages, constitute a crucially important component of the mononuclear-monocytic system. KCs have a wide variety of responsibilities at both local and systemic level, notably the barrier function preventing various pathogens and their toxic by-products (e.g., endotoxin, also known as bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS)) from entering systemic circulation.
  • 1.7K
  • 13 Sep 2022
Topic Review
Dietary zeaxanthin occurrence and bioaccessibility
This entry provides a comprehensive and exhaustive overview of natural food sources of zeaxanthin and their respective zeaxanthin bioaccessibility, while also placing emphasis on the importance of this oxygenated carotenoid in human health. The content of zeaxanthin in foods of different origin (plant-, animal- and microalgal-based food sources) has been reviewed and the in vitro accessibility results obtained by various research groups through the standardized INFOGEST protocol were compared among the different zeaxanthin food sources.
  • 1.7K
  • 14 Sep 2020
Topic Review
Glioblastoma Multiforme
To date, surgical resection along with chemotherapy and radiation therapy represent the standard of care in the treatment of high-grade gliomas. Despite, some advancement in diagnostic and therapy, the long-term outcome remains poor in this subset of brain tumors. Since it's discovery, leptin and associated receptor ObR have been shown to exist in several isofroms in various brain regions. Experimental studies suggest an association between obesity/diabetes, glucose lowering drugs (metformin) with the therapeutic outcome of gliobalstoma. Contrary, conflicting findings were observed in retrospective conducted and prospective observational human trials. Although leptin and related pathways represent novel targets for diagnosis and therapy of brain tumors, randomized-controlled Trials have yet to determine it's potential value and are currently on the way. 
  • 1.7K
  • 22 Dec 2020
Topic Review
Liposomal Delivery Systems
The versatility of liposomal carriers does not just simply rely on their capability to encapsulate various types of therapeutic substances, but also on the large array of components used for constructing liposome-based nanoformulations that allow for a straightforward control over targeting and the release of the encapsulated contents. This leads to a wide array of design strategies which can be easily adapted to any desired theraupetic effect, rendering liposomes one of the most promising systems for drug delivery. 
  • 1.7K
  • 20 Jan 2021
Topic Review
Origin of SMTP
Stachybotrys microspora triprenyl phenol (SMTP) is a large family of small molecules derived from the fungus S. microspora. SMTP acts as a zymogen modulator (specifically, plasminogen modulator) that alters plasminogen conformation to enhance its binding to fibrin and subsequent fibrinolysis. Certain SMTP congeners exert anti-inflammatory effects by targeting soluble epoxide hydrolase. SMTP congeners with both plasminogen modulation activity and anti-inflammatory activity ameliorate various aspects of ischemic stroke in rodents and primates. A remarkable feature of SMTP efficacy is the suppression of hemorrhagic transformation, which is exacerbated by conventional thrombolytic treatments.
  • 1.7K
  • 29 Jan 2021
Topic Review
Zephaniah Kingsley
Zephaniah Kingsley Jr. (December 4, 1765 – September 14, 1843), a Quaker born in England who moved as a child with his family to South Carolina, became a planter, slave trader, and merchant who built several plantations in the Spanish colony of Florida in what is now Jacksonville, Florida. He served on the Florida Territorial Council after Florida was acquired by the United States in 1821. Kingsley Plantation, which he owned and where he lived for 25 years, has been preserved as part of the Timucuan Ecological and Historic Preserve, run by the United States National Park Service. Kingsley was a relatively lenient slaveholder, who allowed his slaves the opportunity to be hired out and earn their freedom. He took four enslaved African women as common-law wives, practicing polygamy. His first wife, Anna Madgigine Jai Kingsley, was 13 years old when Kingsley purchased her in Havana. He said that he had married her, which he never said of his three other common-law wives. He emancipated Anna Jai when she turned 18, and trusted her with running his plantation when he was away on business. He had a total of nine mixed-race children with his wives. He educated his children to high standards and worked to ensure he could settle his estate on them and his wives. His interracial family and his business interests resulted in Kingsley being deeply invested in the Spanish system of slavery and society. As in the French colonies, certain rights were provided to a class of free people of color, and multiracial natural children were allowed to inherit property from white fathers. "In the Spanish Floridas free people of color ... enjoyed tremendously elevated status when compared to virtually any other person of African descent in North America.":61 Kingsley became involved in politics when control of the Florida colony passed in 1821 from Spain to the United States. He tried to persuade the new territorial government to maintain the special status of the population of free people of color, who were mostly multi-racial. He was unsuccessful in this effort, and in 1828 he published a pamphlet that defended a system of slavery that would allow slaves to purchase their freedom, and give rights to free blacks and free people of color. Faced with American laws that forbade interracial marriage, and discouraged "free people of color" (see Free black#Free negroes unwelcome) being allowed to stay or settle in the state, between 1835 and 1837, Kingsley relocated his large family to Haiti. (At that time it controlled part of what is today the Dominican Republic.) After his death, his estate in Florida was the subject of dispute between his widow Anna Jai and other members of Kingsley's family, but she was successful in gaining the estate he had bequeathed to her.
  • 1.7K
  • 11 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Structure and Function of Sorting Nexin 27
SNX27 belongs to the sorting nexin (SNX) family of proteins that play a critical role in protein sorting and trafficking in the endocytosis pathway. This protein family is characterized by the presence of a Phox (PX) domain; however, SNX27 is unique in containing an additional PDZ (post-synaptic density 95/discs large/zonula occludens-1) domain.
  • 1.7K
  • 29 Jan 2023
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