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Topic Review Peer Reviewed
Artificial Intelligence in EFL Speaking Instruction: A Systematic Review of Pedagogical Design, Affective Conditions and Instructional Input
Speaking proficiency remains one of the most challenging skills for learners of English as a Foreign Language (EFL), particularly in contexts where sustained spoken interaction is limited. This systematic review synthesises 36 empirical studies (2015–2025) identified through a PRISMA-guided Scopus search to examine how artificial intelligence (AI)-mediated instruction supports EFL speaking development. The included studies were analysed according to AI modality, pedagogical integration, instructional input characteristics, and linguistic and affective outcomes. Findings indicate that AI tools—such as chatbots, automatic speech recognition systems, and large language models—consistently support affective outcomes, including reduced speaking anxiety and increased willingness to communicate. Improvements in fluency, pronunciation, and accuracy were frequently reported, particularly when AI tools were embedded within task-based and pedagogically structured instructional designs. However, evidence for sustained development of higher-order communicative competence was more variable. The review proposes a mediated input framework conceptualising AI as a design-sensitive instructional resource rather than an autonomous teaching agent.
  • 74
  • 30 Mar 2026
Topic Review
Semantic Shift
Semantic shift is the process through which the meaning of a linguistic expression changes over time, resulting in a modification of the relationship between a word, phrase, or other lexical unit and the concept or referent it denotes. Within lexicography and language studies, the concept describes changes in lexical meaning that may involve alterations in semantic range, including extensions, restrictions, transfers, or reorganizations of meaning within a language system [1]. Semantic shift concerns changes in the interpretation and usage of linguistic forms rather than changes in their phonological or grammatical structure, distinguishing it from processes such as sound change or morphological change [2]. The phenomenon reflects the dynamic relationship between lexical forms, conceptual categories, and patterns of language use, where existing expressions may acquire new meanings while retaining, modifying, or losing previous semantic associations [3]. In linguistic analysis, semantic shift is treated as a diachronic process of semantic change that examines transformations in lexical meaning across different stages of language development [4].
  • 66
  • 22 Oct 2026
Topic Review Peer Reviewed
Blind Alley Developments in Childrens’ Language Acquisition
A blind alley development (BAD) is a rarely occurring ephemeral development of young children that systematically deviates from parental input and is eventually abandoned due to persistent explicit and/or implicit correction by the children’s caregivers.
  • 50
  • 03 Dec 2025
Topic Review Peer Reviewed
Translation of Word- and Language-Play
Translation primarily refers to interlingual translation here, i.e., the transfer of texts (broadly understood) between distinct languages. Wordplay is used synonymously with puns, while language-play is a broader concept referring to the intentional manipulation of linguistic elements for special effects. Language-play thus includes, but is not limited to, wordplay. This paper provides an overview of the issues involved in the translation of language-play, including wordplay. To this end, definitions, categories, and arguments related to translation on the one hand, and to word- as well as language-play on the other, are presented. This includes an introduction to different modes, purposes, and challenges of translation, as well as a discussion of the possible forms, functions, and effects of language-play, partly in relation to humour. Based on this groundwork, claims and findings related to the combination of the fields, i.e., the translation of word- and language-play, will be summarized. The paper concludes with an attempt at placing word- and language-play translation into a broader context, including societal and educational concerns, as well as the latest changes affecting the translation profession.
  • 48
  • 13 Feb 2026
Topic Review Peer Reviewed
Usage-Based Motivations for Diachronic Language Change
With the understanding that language variation, whether synchronic or diachronic, is, for the most part, not random but systematic and predictable, linguists and philologists have long engaged with the task of providing accounts and explanations for how a phenomenon in a given language moves from stage a to stage b, with a temporally preceding b. A usage-based approach to diachronic change takes as its basis a fundamental link between usage and the evolution of linguistic structure through time. More specifically, motivations for language change are sought in areas that involve speakers using language and interacting with one another, such as discourse and communication, as well as cognitive processes involved in producing and understanding language. Mechanisms that contribute to language change include pragmatic inferences, frequency, (inter)subjectification and discourse management (turn-taking).
  • 34
  • 05 Feb 2026
Topic Review
Componential Analysis
In linguistic research and analysis, componential analysis is a method of semantic analysis that describes the meanings of lexical items by decomposing them into a set of smaller, contrastive semantic features or components [1]. The approach treats lexical meaning as a structured combination of semantic elements, with individual lexical units distinguished by the presence, absence, or configuration of particular features within a semantic domain [1]. Componential analysis is concerned with the systematic representation of meaning relations among words through feature-based analysis and differs from approaches that regard lexical meaning primarily as indivisible or determined only by contextual usage [2].
  • 28
  • 22 Oct 2026
Topic Review
Arabic Language Learning Method
Arabic Language Learning with Communicative Methodand Factors Affecting Student's Speaking Ability
  • 27
  • 21 Oct 2026
Topic Review
Unicode Standard
The Unicode Standard is a universal character encoding standard that defines a coded representation for the written characters and symbols used in digital text processing across different writing systems and languages. It assigns unique numeric values, known as code points, to characters and specifies the rules and properties required for their consistent representation, interchange, and processing in computer systems [1]. The standard includes character encoding principles, character semantics, properties, and conformance requirements that distinguish abstract characters from their encoded representations and provide a framework for interoperable text representation [1][2]. Within linguistics and language studies, the Unicode Standard functions as a formal system for representing linguistic writing units and textual symbols in digital environments, while remaining distinct from orthographic systems, writing systems, and individual character sets that define or organize particular languages [1].
  • 27
  • 22 Oct 2026
Topic Review
Bilingual Education in the U.S.
Bilingual education in the United States encompasses programs that use both English and students’ home languages to promote learning. It has been shaped by changing political priorities, policies, and debates over assimilation versus linguistic diversity. This entry reviews the history of bilingual education in the United States and how public opinion and political attitudes have shifted over time. It traces how policymakers and practitioners have viewed English language acquisition as either a tool of assimilation or as a resource for learning, and how support has moved from English-only immersion to dual language education programs. The discussion highlights how current assessment practices, focused on English-only standardized testing, have not kept pace with changing views of bilingual education. The entry concludes by identifying gaps in research and urging states to evaluate how comprehensively they serve their bilingual student population through their education policies and programs.
  • 23
  • 05 Jan 2026
Topic Review Peer Reviewed
The Role of the Article in Patterns of Modification in Greek
The present entry focuses on definiteness agreement patterns in Modern Greek by exploring the function of the definite article in structures that involve a head noun and a modifier—typically an adjective, but not only—that is also accompanied by the definite article. Such structures have been variously dubbed polydefinite noun phrases/Determiner Phrases (or, simply, polydefinites), appositions, (pseudo)partitives, and evaluative appositives in the numerous studies that have been put forward to account for them over the past four decades or so. The peculiarity of these structures is the very presence of the second definite article that shows up whenever the modified noun itself is definite; at first sight, this ‘second’ article seems redundant, or expletive. Polydefiniteness has earned a privileged position in the literature, as has been discussed extensively and in depth over the past thirty years or so. The aim of this entry is to provide i. a description of the patterns that involve a noun and a modifier accompanied by its own definite article, and ii. a comprehensive survey of the relevant literature by highlighting commonalities and differences across the basic studies that have been written about polydefiniteness.
  • 23
  • 03 Jun 2026
Topic Review
Translation Quality Assessment
Translation Quality Assessment (TQA) is a systematic procedure for judging the quality of a translation by comparing the target text against the source text and explicit quality criteria such as accuracy, appropriateness of register and style, grammatical correctness, and functional adequacy in its communicative context [1][2][3]. It treats translation quality as a multidimensional construct that can be described in terms of defined evaluation categories and error types, and it requires assessors to collect, synthesize, and interpret evidence about how the translation fulfills or fails to fulfill these criteria [1][2]. Within this perspective, TQA is understood as an organized, model-based assessment of translation products (and, where relevant, processes) using transparent scales, descriptors, and decision procedures, rather than as informal or impressionistic judgment [2][3]. The term “Translation Quality Assessment” therefore designates the explicitly framed evaluative activity applied to translations, distinguished from broader discussions of translation quality that do not rely on a structured assessment framework [1][2][3].
  • 23
  • 26 Oct 2026
Topic Review
Word Combinations
Word combinations are linguistic units formed by the co-occurrence of two or more words that are connected through grammatical, semantic, or conventional relationships within a language system. In lexicography and language studies, the concept refers to combinations of lexical items whose association may be determined by syntactic structure, semantic compatibility, or established patterns of usage [1]. Word combinations differ from random sequences of words because their formation is constrained by linguistic rules or recurrent patterns recognized by speakers of a language [2]. They may range from freely generated combinations, where individual words retain relatively independent meanings, to more fixed expressions, where the combination functions as a conventionalized lexical unit with a more predictable interpretation [3]. Within lexical studies, word combinations are analyzed as relationships between individual lexical items and their combinatory behavior, including collocational, phraseological, and syntactic properties that characterize how words are selected and combined in meaningful expressions.
  • 23
  • 22 Oct 2026
Topic Review
Lexical Unit
A lexical unit is a conventionalized linguistic expression that constitutes an identifiable unit of the lexicon and is associated with a relatively stable pairing of formal realization and lexical meaning [1]. It may be realized as a single lexeme or as a fixed or semi-fixed multiword expression, provided that the expression is treated as a stored and describable lexical entity rather than as a freely generated combination of independent words [1][2]. A lexical unit may have inflectional variants and may exhibit syntactic, morphological, semantic, collocational, and pragmatic properties; these properties form part of its lexicographic description [1]. The term is broader than word form, which denotes a particular orthographic or phonological realization, and may be broader than lexeme, which commonly denotes an abstract vocabulary item encompassing its inflected forms; lexical units can therefore include phraseological expressions whose lexical status is not reducible to a single lexeme [1][2].
  • 23
  • 22 Oct 2026
Topic Review
Communicative Dynamics
Communicative dynamics refers to the changing, interactional organization of communication as participants produce, interpret, and respond to one another’s verbal, nonverbal, and contextual cues during an exchange. The term encompasses the sequential relations among communicative actions—such as initiating, responding, clarifying, repairing, affiliating, or closing—and the ways these actions shape the development of discourse [1]. It also includes the influence of participants’ roles, relationships, communicative purposes, shared knowledge, and situational setting on the selection and interpretation of linguistic and other semiotic resources [2]. Communicative dynamics concerns communication as an evolving process rather than as isolated messages or stable individual language abilities. It is distinct from grammatical description, which addresses formal properties of language, and from communication channels alone, which refer to the media through which interaction occurs [1][2].
  • 22
  • 22 Oct 2026
Topic Review
Interpersonal Communication
Interpersonal communication is the reciprocal, situated process through which two or more individuals create, interpret, negotiate, and respond to messages within an actual or developing social relationship. It encompasses verbal, nonverbal, and paralinguistic forms of symbolic behavior, as well as the contextual inferences through which participants attribute meaning to one another’s messages [1]. Its defining feature is not simply the exchange of information between people, but the mutual orientation of communicators as socially identifiable persons whose perceptions, expectations, emotions, roles, and relationship history shape the interaction. The concept therefore includes message production and reception, feedback, interpretation, and the ongoing coordination of relational meanings. Interpersonal communication may occur face-to-face or through mediated channels, provided that interaction remains directed among identifiable participants and retains relational significance. It is distinguished from intrapersonal communication, which concerns processes within an individual, and from mass communication, which is generally directed toward large, dispersed, and less personally differentiated audiences. The field also treats communication as dynamic and interdependent: each participant’s conduct both influences and is interpreted in relation to the other’s conduct [2].
  • 22
  • 22 Oct 2026
Topic Review
Lexical Semantics
Lexical semantics is the branch of linguistic semantics concerned with the meanings conventionally associated with lexical items and with the systematic relations among those meanings within a language’s lexicon [1][2]. It examines the internal semantic structure of lexemes, including the delimitation and organization of word senses, as well as relations such as synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy, meronymy, and lexical ambiguity [1][3]. The field also addresses the extent to which lexical meaning is shaped by grammatical category, conceptual structure, and patterns of use, while distinguishing relatively stable, lexically encoded meaning from the context-dependent interpretatilexical meaning; word sense; semantic relations; polysemyon investigated primarily in compositional semantics and pragmatics [2][3].
  • 21
  • 22 Oct 2026
Topic Review
Classical Domain
Classical Domain denotes the scholarly field commonly referred to as Classics or Classical Studies, concerned principally with ancient Greek and Roman languages, texts, and cultures. It includes the examination of Greek and Latin literary, philosophical, historical, legal, and documentary texts, as well as inscriptions, manuscripts, and other written sources [1]. A central component of the field is philological analysis: the study of linguistic forms, ancient grammatical traditions, textual transmission, variant readings, and the interpretation of texts in relation to their historical context [1]. The Classical Domain also encompasses material and historical evidence—including archaeological remains, visual culture, and records of social, political, religious, and intellectual life—when these support the study of Greek and Roman antiquity [2]. Its conceptual boundary is defined by this primary Greco-Roman focus; it is not a general designation for all ancient civilizations, although evidence from neighbouring cultures may be considered where it directly informs the interpretation of Greek or Roman sources [2].
  • 20
  • 22 Oct 2026
Topic Review
Lexicographic Method
A lexicographic method is a principled and systematic procedure for selecting, analyzing, describing, organizing, and presenting lexical information in a dictionary or comparable lexicographic resource [1][2]. It comprises decisions about the resource’s scope and intended user group; the selection and lemmatization of lexical units; the evidential basis for description; the delineation and ordering of senses; and the representation of orthographic, grammatical, semantic, collocational, usage-related, and, where applicable, translational information within entries [1][3]. The method also determines the resource’s macrostructure—the overall arrangement and access to entries—and microstructure—the internal structure and information categories of individual entries [2][3]. It is distinct from lexicology, which investigates the lexicon as an object of linguistic study, because a lexicographic method specifies the descriptive and editorial procedures through which lexical knowledge is transformed into an organized reference work [1][2].
  • 20
  • 22 Oct 2026
Topic Review
Modal Language
Modal language refers to linguistic expressions that indicate a speaker’s assessment of the necessity, possibility, probability, obligation, permission, or related degrees of commitment associated with a proposition or event [1]. In linguistic analysis, modal language is primarily expressed through modal verbs, auxiliary constructions, adverbs, particles, and other grammatical or lexical forms that modify the status of a statement rather than its core descriptive content [2]. Modal expressions are distinguished from ordinary descriptive expressions because they encode a speaker’s perspective toward the truth conditions, realization, or interpretation of a proposition, including epistemic, deontic, and related modal meanings [1]. Within language and linguistics, modal language is studied as part of the relationship between grammatical form, semantic interpretation, and contextual meaning [3].
  • 20
  • 22 Oct 2026
Topic Review
Textual Linguistics
Textual linguistics is a branch of linguistics concerned with the analysis of texts as units of language that extend beyond individual sentences, examining their structural organization, semantic coherence, cohesion, and communicative functions [1]. It investigates the linguistic and contextual principles through which sentences and other textual elements are connected to form meaningful and functionally organized wholes, including relationships established through reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction, and lexical cohesion [1]. Textual linguistics distinguishes the analysis of texts as interconnected communicative units from the analysis of isolated sentences, while recognizing that textual organization involves grammatical, semantic, pragmatic, and contextual dimensions . Its scope includes the structural properties and interpretive conditions of both written and spoken texts, although specific theoretical approaches differ in how they define textuality and the boundaries of a text [2].
  • 20
  • 22 Oct 2026
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