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Topic Review
Type I IFNs in Long-Haul COVID Syndrome
Interferons (IFNs) are pleiotropic cytokines originally identified for their antiviral activity. IFN-α and IFN-β are both type I IFNs that have been used to treat neurological diseases such as multiple sclerosis. Microglia, astrocytes, as well as neurons in the central and peripheral nervous systems, including spinal cord neurons and dorsal root ganglion neurons, express type I IFN receptors (IFNARs). Type I IFNs play an active role in regulating cognition, aging, depression, and neurodegenerative diseases. Notably, by suppressing neuronal activity and synaptic transmission, IFN-α and IFN-β produced potent analgesia.
  • 810
  • 06 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Cell Biology and Immune Functions of the MSC
The acronym mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) refers either to: Mesenchymal Stem Cell, a term popularized by Caplan in the 1990s and broadly used after that, or Multipotent Mesenchymal Stromal Cell, which is the terminology promoted by Mesenchymal and Tissue Stem Cell Committee of the International Society of Cell Therapy. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are a subset of non-hematopoietic stem cells found at low frequency, mainly located around vessels (hence also named pericytes) in resting conditions but with high proliferation and multilineage differentiation capacities to orchestrate tissue repair mechanisms.
  • 806
  • 28 Jul 2022
Topic Review
Treatment of Human Babesiosis
Babesiosis is an emerging tick-borne disease caused by apicomplexan parasites of the genus Babesia. With its increasing incidence worldwide and the risk of human-to-human transmission through blood transfusion, babesiosis is becoming a rising public health concern.
  • 801
  • 16 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Antituberculosis Targeted Drug Delivery
Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) is the microorganism that causes tuberculosis. The discovery of the antituberculosis agents in the 20th century has managed to improve the recovery rate and reduce the death rate tremendously. However, the conventional antituberculosis therapy is complicated by the development of resistant strains and adverse drug reactions experienced by the patients. Targeted drug delivery may be a potentially useful approach to be developed into clinically accepted treatment modalities. Active targeting utilizes a specifically designed targeting agent to deliver a chemically conjugated drug(s) towards Mtb. Passive targeting is very widely explored, with the development of multiple types of nanoparticles from organic and inorganic materials. The nanoparticles will be engulfed by macrophages and this will eliminate the Mtb that is present in the macrophages, or the encapsulated drug may be released at the sites of infections that may be in the form of intra- and extrapulmonary tuberculosis.
  • 794
  • 24 Nov 2021
Topic Review Peer Reviewed
Effects of in Utero SARS-CoV-2 Exposure on Newborn Health Outcomes
The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has infected over 600 million people worldwide, including millions of pregnant women. While newborns exposed to other viruses in utero are sometimes at high risk for vertical transmission, a substantial body of literature since early 2020 has demonstrated that vertical transmission of SARS-CoV-2 from infected mother to neonate is rare, and that newborns who do become infected with SARS-CoV-2 generally have favorable outcomes. In this review, the authors evaluate the existing literature on vertical transmission of SARS-CoV-2 and its potential mechanisms and discuss short- and long-term health outcomes in newborns who were exposed to SARS-CoV-2 in utero. The authors conclude that vertical transmission and adverse neonatal and infant/child outcomes are unlikely, but that neonates exposed to prenatal maternal SARS-CoV-2 infection may be at slightly higher risk for preterm birth, possibly related to increased risk of severe COVID-19 disease in pregnant women, placental changes, or infection timing. Ultimately, the need for additional and longer-term follow-up data in this population is highlighted.
  • 793
  • 12 Jan 2023
Topic Review
Ketoprofen Lysine Salt as Pharmacological Treatment for SARS-CoV-2
COVID-19 is an infective disease resulting in widespread respiratory and non-respiratory symptoms prompted by SARS-CoV-2 infection. Interaction between SARS-CoV-2 and host cell receptors prompts activation of pro-inflammatory pathways which are involved in epithelial and endothelial damage mechanisms even after viral clearance. Since inflammation has been recognized as a critical step in COVID-19, anti-inflammatory therapies, including both steroids and non-steroids as well as cytokine inhibitors, have been proposed. Early treatment of COVID-19 has the potential to affect the clinical course of the disease regardless of underlying comorbid conditions. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), which are widely used for symptomatic relief of upper airway infections, became the mainstay of early phase treatment of COVID-19.
  • 791
  • 11 Jan 2023
Topic Review
Antimicrobial Effects of Antimicrobial Peptides
The growing emergence of antimicrobial resistance represents a global problem that not only influences healthcare systems but also has grave implications for political and economic processes. As the discovery of novel antimicrobial agents is lagging, one of the solutions is innovative therapeutic options that would expand our armamentarium against this hazard. Compounds of interest in many such studies are antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), which actually represent the host’s first line of defense against pathogens and are involved in innate immunity. They have a broad range of antimicrobial activity against Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria, fungi, and viruses, with specific mechanisms of action utilized by different AMPs.
  • 779
  • 18 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Antimicrobial Peptides as Potential Anti-Tubercular
Antimicrobial peptides (AMP) are small cationic and amphipathic molecules that play a vital role in the host immune system by acting as a first barrier against invading pathogens. The broad spectrum of properties that peptides possess make them one of the best possible alternatives for a new “post-antibiotic” era.
  • 778
  • 23 Jun 2021
Topic Review
Human Milk Oligosaccharides as Potential Antibiofilm Agents
Bacteria possess a unique capability to form biofilms that are ubiquitous in nature. It is a multistage and elaborate process that begins with bacterial adhesion to surfaces, followed by the synthesis of extracellular polymeric substance (EPS) matrix, development of microcolonies, and finally concludes with the dispersion of the bacterial cells from the initial. The morphology of biofilms can be diverse and that mostly relies on the integral bacterial species and the circumstances under which the biofilm was originally formed. The development of biofilms protects the bacteria against enzymatic degradation, antimicrobials, and host defense systems. Population heterogeneity, slow metabolic activity, increased efflux pumps, and presence of persister subpopulations are some of the major factors that reduce antimicrobial susceptibility in biofilms. 
  • 764
  • 08 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Colchicine in Combating COVID-19 Cytokine Storm
Despite the advance in the management of Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), the global pandemic is still ongoing with a massive health crisis. COVID-19 manifestations may range from mild symptoms to severe life threatening ones. The hallmark of the disease severity is related to the overproduction of pro-inflammatory cytokines manifested as a cytokine storm. Based on its anti-inflammatory activity through interfering with several pro and anti-inflammatory pathways, colchicine had been proposed to reduce the cytokine storm and subsequently improve clinical outcomes.
  • 763
  • 11 Feb 2022
Topic Review
Three-Dimensional Cell Culture Methods
Cells, the basic structures of all living organisms, reside in an extracellular matrix consisting of a complex three-dimensional architecture and interact with neighboring cells both mechanically and biochemically. Cell–cell and cell–extracellular matrix interactions form a three-dimensional network that maintains tissue specificity and homeostasis. Important biological processes in a cell cycle are regulated by principles organized by the microenvironment surrounding the cell. The conventional cell culture methods failed to mimic in vivo-like structural organization and are insufficient to examine features such as connectivity of cells, cellular morphology, viability, proliferation, differentiation, gene and protein expression, response to stimuli, and drug/vaccine metabolism. Three-dimensional cell culture studies are very important in terms of reducing the need for in vivo studies and creating an intermediate step.
  • 763
  • 17 Jan 2023
Topic Review
SARS-CoV-2 Intermittent Virulence
Pandemic viruses do not always show decreased virulence. Instead, it appears there is an evolutionary equilibrium between transmissibility and virulence. It can be termed this concept “intermittent virulence”. There is a high possibility that new virulent variants will arise in the near future, although it is improbable that SARS-CoV-2’s virulence will be the same as was seen during the alpha or delta waves, due to the fact that the human population has reached a sufficient level of herd immunity through natural infection or due to the vaccination programs. The most recent global mortality data raised the question of whether this pandemic is really over. Furthermore, it is uncertain when the endemic phase will begin. Darwin’s words: “the survival of the fittest” are still valid, and the virus will continue killing nonvaccinated old people, vaccinated old people, and those with comorbidities.
  • 762
  • 08 Aug 2022
Topic Review
Omicron vs. Delta Variant
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) first emerged in Wuhan city in December 2019, and became a grave global concern due to its highly infectious nature. The Severe Acute Respiratory Coronavirus-2, with its predecessors (i.e., MERS-CoV and SARS-CoV) belong to the family of Coronaviridae. Reportedly, COVID-19 has infected 344,710,576 people around the globe and killed nearly 5,598,511 persons in the short span of two years. On November 24, 2021, B.1.1.529 strain, later named Omicron, was classified as a Variant of Concern (VOC). SARS-CoV-2 has continuously undergone a series of unprecedented mutations and evolved to exhibit varying characteristics.
  • 761
  • 04 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Weil’s Disease
Leptospirosis is one of the most widespread and dangerous zoonoses in the world. The main cause of death in leptospirosis is the development of a severe form of leptospirosis—Weil’s disease, which affects the kidneys, lungs, and liver, which are a “triad” of target organs in leptospirosis.
  • 760
  • 22 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Glutamine Deficiency in COVID-19
The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has caused the death of almost 7 million people worldwide. While vaccinations and new antiviral drugs have greatly reduced the number of COVID-19 cases, there remains a need for additional therapeutic strategies to combat this deadly disease. Accumulating clinical data have discovered a deficiency of circulating glutamine in patients with COVID-19 that associates with disease severity. Glutamine is a semi-essential amino acid that is metabolized to a plethora of metabolites that serve as central modulators of immune and endothelial cell function. A majority of glutamine is metabolized to glutamate and ammonia by the mitochondrial enzyme glutaminase (GLS). Notably, GLS activity is upregulated in COVID-19, favoring the catabolism of glutamine. This disturbance in glutamine metabolism may provoke immune and endothelial dysfunction leading to vascular occlusion, multiorgan failure, and death. Strategies that restore the plasma concentration of glutamine, its metabolites, or downstream effectors represent a promising therapeutic that approach that may correct immune and endothelial cell dysfunction and prevent the development of occlusive vascular disease in patients stricken with COVID-19.
  • 758
  • 28 Apr 2023
Topic Review
Immunological Methods of Common Intestinal Protozoa
Intestinal protozoan infection is a persistent public health problem affecting the populations of developing countries in tropical and subtropical regions. The diagnosis of intestinal protozoa remains a challenge especially in developing countries due to a shortage of laboratory facilities, limited health funding, and the remoteness of communities. Despite still being widely used, conventional diagnoses using microscopy and staining methods pose important limitations, particularly due to their low sensitivities and specificities. The selection of diagnostic methods needs to be carefully considered based on the objective of examination, availability of resources, and the expected parasite to be found. Immunodiagnostic tests are generally inexpensive, user-friendly, and enable fast-obtained results. Antibody and antigen detection tests, such as indirect hemagglutination (IHA), indirect immunofluorescence (IIF), enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), direct fluorescent antibody (DFA), rapid enzyme immune assay (EIA), immunochromatographic test (ICT), or latex agglutination, are commercially available via several different platforms. The combination of antibody and fecal antigen detection assays is more sensitive and specific than microscopy for the diagnosis of several intestinal protozoan infections.
  • 757
  • 11 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Role of ACE2 in Gut
A vital factor of viral pathogenesis involves the angiotensin-converting enzyme-2 (ACE2) cellular receptor, which facilitates entry of the virus into susceptible cells. The receptor-binding domain of the spike protein binds to the ACE2 receptor activating membrane fusion of the virus to the host cell. Subsequently, viral RNA is released into the cytoplasm, and the infection is established. The gut microbiota is shaped by our diet; therefore, a healthy gut is important for optimal metabolism, immunology and protection of the host. 
  • 755
  • 21 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Clinical Aspects of HIV Associated Neurocognitive Impairment
Neurocognitive impairment (NCI) associated with HIV infection of the brain impacts a large proportion of people with HIV (PWH) regardless of antiretroviral therapy (ART). While the number of people with HIV (PWH) and severe NCI has dropped considerably with the introduction of antiretroviral therapy (ART), the sole use of ART is not sufficient to prevent or arrest NCI in many PWH. As the HIV field continues to investigate cure strategies, adjunctive therapies are greatly needed. HIV imaging, cerebrospinal fluid, and pathological studies point to the presence of continual inflammation, and the presence of HIV RNA, DNA, and proteins in the brain despite ART.
  • 755
  • 01 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Human Herpesviruses
Human herpesviruses (HHVs): herpes simplex virus (HSV) types 1 (HSV-1) and 2 (HSV-2), varicella-zoster virus (VZV), Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), cytomegalovirus (CMV), HHV-6, HHV-7, and HHV-8, are known to be part of a family of DNA viruses that cause several diseases in humans. In clinical practice of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), the complication of CMV enterocolitis, which is caused by CMV reactivation under disruption of intestinal barrier function, inflammation, or strong immunosuppressive therapy, is well known to affect the prognosis of disease. However, the relationship between other HHVs and IBD remains unclear.
  • 753
  • 27 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Thymus Gland
The thymus gland is the chief lymphoid organ that regulates the functions of the immune and endocrine systems by controlling the levels of hormones and cytokines. The thymus gland protects against various internal and external stresses through immunoregulatory properties, nerve systems, and endocrine pathways. The thymus gland controls cell proliferation, apoptosis, hormones, and neuropeptides, as well as regulating intrathymic T cell differentiation and production of a repertoire of the T cell.
  • 753
  • 26 Oct 2021
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