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Topic Review Peer Reviewed
Maxwell’s Early Unitary View of Electricity and Fluid Mechanics
In young Maxwell’s eyes, electricity, magnetism and fluid mechanics present analogies that let the first be mathematically grasped in a unitary way similarly to the latter. This entry sketches the first steps of James Clerk Maxwell’s unitary view of electromagnetism and fluid mechanics, with long-lasting effects on understanding the physical world. In his very first paper on the subject, Maxwell interpreted Faraday’s concept of lines of force of both electricity and magnetism as filaments of a flowing fluid. That is, Maxwell suggested to unify the previously distinct fields of electricity and magnetism, considering them as different aspects of the same entity, the ‘electromagnetic field’, which is mathematically described by four partial differential equations. In the literature there are several comprehensive works on Maxwell’s mature exposition of his theory; however, the aim of this entry contribution is rather more limited. Indeed, it is restricted to examining the contributions of Maxwell’s first paper towards developing the idea of electric current as the motion of an incompressible fluid. Thus, this entry highlights the strong connections of Maxwell’s epistemological view with the ‘mechanistic’ approach of the time to every aspect of physical phenomenology. For this purpose, this entry mentions some historical context surrounding the emergence of Maxwell’s innovative concepts.
  • 750
  • 25 Dec 2023
Topic Review
Power Electronics Control Algorithm Verification
Power electronics is an interdisciplinary field related to three basic technical areas: (1) electrical engineering, (2) computer engineering, and (3) control engineering. The importance of power electronics has grown over the years, and now it can be found in every area of life: household appliances, a wide variety of industries, power engineering, energy, telecommunications, medicine, transport, etc. The entry presents the existing verification methods for control algorithms in power electronics systems, including the application of model checking techniques. 
  • 748
  • 04 Aug 2021
Topic Review
Swarm Exploration and Communications
Swarm exploration by multi-agent systems relies on stable inter-agent communication. However, so far both exploration and communication have been mainly considered separately despite their strong inter-dependency in such systems. By a semantic communication design, communication efficiency in terms of latency, required data rate, energy, and complexity may be improved. 
  • 745
  • 28 Jul 2023
Topic Review
Long-Range Wide-Area Networks in Localization
Long-Range Wide-Area Networks (LoRaWAN) allow the transmission of data via radio link from sensors, which are potentially isolated or difficult to access, to gateways and servers that are connected to cellular networks for data processing, exchange, or relay, with low transmission power. This concept employs Long-Range (LoRa) modulation and has led to the emergence of many applications for the monitoring and tracking of objects.
  • 745
  • 17 Nov 2023
Topic Review
Managing Energy Flexibility Resources in Buildings
The integration of renewable energy and flexible energy sources in buildings brings numerous benefits. However, the integration of new technologies has increased the complexity and despite the progress of optimization algorithms and technologies, new research challenges emerge. Multi-objective optimization is crucial to enhance the utilization of flexible resources within individual buildings and communities. 
  • 743
  • 12 Sep 2023
Topic Review
Hybrid Dragonfly Algorithm for Induction Motors Efficiency Optimization
Induction motors tend to have better efficiency on rated conditions, but at partial load conditions, when these motors operate on rated flux, they exhibit lower efficiency. In such conditions, when these motors operate for a long duration, a lot of electricity gets consumed by the motors, due to which the computational cost as well as the total running cost of industrial plant increases. Squirrel-cage induction motors are widely used in industries due to their low cost, robustness, easy maintenance, and good power/mass relation all through their life cycle. A significant amount of electrical energy is consumed due to the large count of operational units worldwide; hence, even an enhancement in minute efficiency can direct considerable contributions within revenue saving, global electricity consumption, and other environmental facts. Hybrid dragonfly algorithm is a model of induction motor drive is taken, in which the proportional integral (PI) controller is tuned. The optimal tuning of gains of a PI controller such as proportional gain and integral gain is conducted. The tuning procedure in the controller is performed in such a condition that the efficiency of the induction motor should be maximum. Moreover, the optimization concept relies on the development of a new hybrid algorithm, the so-called Scrounger Strikes Levy-based dragonfly algorithm (SL-DA), that hybridizes the concept of dragonfly algorithm (DA) and group search optimization (GSO). 
  • 742
  • 26 Apr 2022
Topic Review
History and Polarizer Metasurfaces
Metasurfaces, a special class of metamaterials, have recently become a rapidly growing field, particularly for thin polarization converters. They can be fabricated using a simple fabrication process due to their smaller planar profile, both in the microwave and optical regimes.
  • 741
  • 25 May 2022
Topic Review
Smart Electrical Networks Based on Renewable Sources
The advent of the Fourth Industrial Revolution facilitates real-time data exchange among a diverse array of intelligent meters for various purposes, enabling the integration of smart grids with Industry 4.0. This integration leads to more efficient and sustainable industrial processes, improved energy management, and cost savings. 
  • 739
  • 18 Jan 2024
Topic Review
Electric Vehicle Fast-Charging Technology and System Structure
With the rapid development of the electric vehicle (EV) industry, charging facilities for electric vehicles are gradually improving, thus meeting the demand for fast and safe charging. 
  • 736
  • 25 Apr 2023
Topic Review
Multimodal Biometric Identification System
In the past two decades, many physical and behavioral biometric modalities have been under extensive research, such as fingerprints, palm prints, palms/Finger Textures, faces, irises, voice, gait and signature. All these modalities are vulnerable to presentation spoof attacks; hence, the level of provided security is compromised. Fingerprint- and palm-print-based biometric systems may be deceived by using gelatin or clay-made artificial fingerprint surfaces or images. Biometric systems using faces as a biometric modality may be attacked by using photographs, 3-D face models and recorded short clips. Iris-based biometric systems may encounter spoof attacks by employing iris images taken from enrolled users. Voice- and gait-based biometric systems may be attacked by feeding prerecorded audio and video to the recognition system, respectively. 
  • 725
  • 21 Dec 2023
Topic Review
Particle Swarm Optimisation in Internet of Things
The internet of things, a collection of diversified distributed nodes, implies a varying choice of activities ranging from sleep monitoring and tracking of activities, to more complex activities such as data analytics and management. With an increase in scale comes even greater complexities, leading to significant challenges such as excess energy dissipation, which can lead to a decrease in IoT devices’ lifespan. Internet of things’ (IoT) multiple variable activities and ample data management greatly influence devices’ lifespan, making resource optimisation a necessity. Existing methods with respect to aspects of resource management and optimisation are limited in their concern of devices energy dissipation.
  • 724
  • 07 Apr 2024
Topic Review
Power Quality Due to Electric Vehicles Charging
The transportation industry is transitioning from conventional Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles (ICVs) to Electric Vehicles (EVs) due to the depletion of fossil fuels and the rise in non-traditional energy sources. EVs are emerging as the new leaders in the industry. The supply systems in the world are invariably AC systems. This necessitates using an AC-DC converter in the battery-charging system. With grid connection, several important power quality parameters need to be considered. The power systems are usually designed keeping in mind the increase of load in the future.
  • 719
  • 17 Jul 2023
Topic Review
New-Generation Batteries Technologies
Battery technologies have recently undergone significant advancements in design and manufacturing to meet the performance requirements of a wide range of applications, including electromobility and stationary domains. For e-mobility, batteries are essential components in various types of electric vehicles (EVs), including battery electric vehicles (BEVs), plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), and fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs). These EVs rely on diverse charging systems, including conventional charging, fast-charging, and vehicle-to-everything (V2X) systems. In stationary applications, batteries are increasingly being employed for the electrical management of micro/smart grids as transient buffer energy storage. Batteries are commonly used in conjunction with power electronic interfaces to adapt to the specific requirements of various applications. Furthermore, power electronic interfaces to batteries themselves have evolved technologically, resulting in more efficient, thermally efficient, compact, and robust power converter architectures. 
  • 715
  • 14 Nov 2023
Topic Review
Heat Pipe Type Applied in the Air-Conditioning System
An air-conditioning system (ACS), which consumes large amounts of high-grade energy, is essential for maintaining the indoor thermal environment of modern buildings. However, an ACS consumes almost half of the total energy of the building. Therefore, it is necessary to reduce the energy consumption of the ACS to promote energy conservation and emission reduction in the building sector. In fact, there is an abundance of waste heat and low-grade energies with the potential to be utilized in ACS in nature, but many of them are not utilized efficiently or cannot be utilized at all due to the low efficiency of thermal energy conversion. Known as a passive thermal transfer device, the application of a heat pipe (HP) in the ACS has shown explosive growth in recent years. HPs have been demonstrated to be an effective method for reducing building cooling and heating demands and energy consumption in ACS with experimental and simulation methods. 
  • 713
  • 14 Nov 2023
Topic Review
Intelligent Wearable Systems for Diagnosis of Peripheral Neuropathy
The automated diagnosis of peripheral neuropathy (PN) has been performed in many studies where only a single sensor or technique is used for the data acquisition purpose. These techniques are based on analyzing foot plantar pressure or gait analysis, vibration- and sensitivity-based confocal microscopic image processing, thermal image processing, ultrasound scanner, and nerve conduction studies (NCS) or electromyography (EMG). However, in order to diagnose peripheral neuropathy, a continuous source of data is necessary to diagnose and track the progression of PN. Image-based approaches can provide a feasible way of detecting PN. In a number of research studies, a subject’s gait is analyzed using cameras, but, due to the camera’s limited field of view, it cannot provide continuous data which can result in missed data points. Similarly, other non-wearable techniques such as vibration- or perception-based methods and thermal images provide suitable ways for the detection of PN, but these types of methods are not suitable for long-term data collection which is vital for the diagnosis and progression of PN. For this purpose, wearable sensors are the most suitable way to collect continuous data, as wearable devices are designed in such a way that they can be easily worn by patients and attached to the human body directly. They also provide a way to collect and store patient activity data for later use.
  • 707
  • 30 Nov 2023
Topic Review
Phasor Measurement Units for Modern Power Systems
The development of modern power systems is directly related to changes in the traditional principles of management, planning, and monitoring of electrical modes. The mass introduction of renewable energy sources and control devices based on power electronics components contributes to changing the nature of the flow of transient and quasi-established electrical modes.
  • 705
  • 09 Nov 2023
Topic Review
Dust Properties on Photovoltaic Systems
As conventional energy sources decrease and worldwide power demand grows, the appeal of photovoltaic (PV) systems as sustainable and ecofriendly energy sources has grown. PV system installation is influenced by geographical location, orientation, and inclination angle. Dust is a collection of tiny particles composed of microscopic solid inorganic and organic particles such as soil particles, ash (including pollutants from factories, vehicles, and firewood), bacteria, and so on, that has a diameter smaller than that of the air 500–1000 µm. These particles vary in size, volume, chemical concentration, and shape. Dust properties, such as size, shape, chemical composition, transmittance, absorption, reflection, thermal conductivity, and emissivity, can all affect the thermal and electrical behavior of PV systems. It is essential to consider that dust properties can vary depending on the location and environmental conditions. 
  • 701
  • 17 Jul 2023
Topic Review
Smart Electrical Energy Systems
Energy systems around the world are going through tremendous transformations, mainly driven by carbon footprint reductions and related policy imperatives and low-carbon technological development. These transformations pose unprecedented technical challenges to the energy sector, but they also bring opportunities for energy systems to develop, adapt, and evolve.
  • 700
  • 06 May 2023
Topic Review
LiDAR Configuration within a Deep Reinforcement Learning
Deep reinforcement learning (DRL) has shown great potential in mapless autonomous robot navigation and path planning. These DRL methods rely on robots equipped with different light detection and range (LiDAR) sensors with a wide field of view (FOV) configuration to perceive their environment. These types of LiDAR sensors are expensive and are not suitable for small-scale applications.
  • 698
  • 18 Dec 2023
Topic Review
Edge Intelligent with Internet of Things
Internet of Things (IoT) connects various industrial actuators, devices, and people at work. IoT provide additional insight into industrial applications, as well as minimize human labour and time and create a path for Industry 4.0.
  • 696
  • 29 Feb 2024
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