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Topic Review
Angiopoietin-like Proteins
Angiopoietin-like proteins (ANGPTLs) are a family of eight proteins with a diversity of applications, including pro- and anti-angiogenic properties.
  • 1.4K
  • 25 Aug 2021
Topic Review
Heterogeneous Nuclear Ribonucleoproteins
Heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoproteins (hnRNPs) are a superfamily of RNA-binding proteins consisting of more than 20 members. These proteins play a crucial role in various biological processes by regulating RNA splicing, transcription, and translation through their binding to RNA.
  • 1.4K
  • 09 Oct 2023
Topic Review Video
Transgenerational-Epigenetic Inheritance and Immune System
Epigenetic modifications cause heritable changes in gene expression which are not due to alterations in underlying DNA sequence. Inside the eukaryotic nucleus, there is condense packing of DNA around histone proteins to constitute chromatin structure. Epigenetic modifications are caused by factors that alter chromatin structure. Some epigenetic factors are enzymes that regulate DNA methylation and histone modifications, non-coding RNA, and prions. An offspring inherits parental epigenetic modifications but most of them are deleted and reset during early developmental stages. Some epigenetic modifications are retained and persist across multiple generations. If any epigenetic modification is the result of a stimulus or immune response in one generation, such that the modification continues to be inherited in subsequent generations which are not subjected to the stimulus; and the inheritance continues beyond the 3rd generation in the female germline and 2nd generation in male, then the phenomenon is called transgenerational epigenetic inheritance (TGEI). This entry is focused on a review which discusses some examples of TGEI that are reported in association with  immune system development and disorders.
  • 1.4K
  • 22 May 2021
Topic Review
Nanobody in CAR-T Therapy
Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T therapy represents a form of immune cellular therapy with clinical efficacy and a specific target. A typical chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) construct consists of an antigen binding domain, a transmembrane domain, and a cytoplasmic domain. Nanobod-ies have been widely applied as the antigen binding domain of CAR-T due to their small size, optimal stability, high affinity, and manufacturing feasibility. The nanobody-based CAR struc-ture has shown a proven function in more than ten different tumor-specific targets. After being transduced in Jurkat cells, natural killer cells, or primary T cells, the resulting nanobody-based CAR-T or CAR-NK cells demonstrate anti-tumor effects both in vitro and in vivo. Interestingly, anti-BCMA CAR-T modulated by a single nanobody or bi-valent nanobody displays comparable clinical effects with that of single-chain variable fragment (scFv)-modulated CAR-T. The applica-tion of nanobodies in CAR-T therapy has been well demonstrated from bench to bedside and displays great potential in forming advanced CAR-T for more challenging tasks.
  • 1.4K
  • 21 Feb 2021
Topic Review
Toll-Like receptors in glomeluronephritis
TLR receptors are a classic example of pattern recognition receptors (PRRs). Signals received by these receptors by recruiting specific molecules lead to activation of the transcription factors NF-κB (nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells) and IRF (interferon regulatory factor) and affect various elements of the host’s innate immune response . TLR mechanisms are based on the ability to recognize twofold signals. The first one is based on the detection of pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), while the second reads molecules related to damage to the body’s own cells (DAMPs; danger-associated molecular patterns). One of the major challenges faced by modern nephrology is the identification of biomarkers associated with histopathological patterns or defined pathogenic mechanisms that may assist in the non-invasive diagnosis of kidney disease, particularly glomerulopathy. The identification of such molecules may allow prognostic subgroups to be established based on the type of disease, thereby predicting response to treatment or disease relapse. Advances in understanding the pathogenesis of diseases, such as membranous nephropathy, minimal change disease, focal segmental glomerulosclerosis, IgA (immunoglobulin A) nephropathy, and diabetic nephropathy, along with the progressive development and standardization of plasma and urine proteomics techniques, have facilitated the identification of an increasing number of molecules that may be useful for these purposes. 
  • 1.4K
  • 23 Sep 2020
Topic Review
Serum lipidomics in Rheumatoid Arthritis
Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a highly debilitating chronic inflammatory autoimmune disease most prevalent in women. The true etiology of this disease is complex, multifactorial, and is yet to be completely elucidated. Changes in the lipid profile at a molecular level in RA are still poorly understood. Studies on the variation of lipid profile in RA using lipidomics showed that fatty acid and phospholipid profile, especially in phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylethanolamine, are affected in this disease. These promising results could lead to the discovery of new diagnostic lipid biomarkers for early diagnosis of RA and targets for personalized medicine.
  • 1.4K
  • 15 Jan 2021
Topic Review
Proton Transport Chain
Carboxylic acids dissociate in water to carboxylates (R-COO-) and oxonium (H+[H2O]n) ions. The Proton Transport Chain (PTC) hypothesis asserts that enzyme complexes bridge nascent acids and ensure water-free transfer of the intermediate substrate. The PTC hypothesis entails that the concentration of the transferred acid is mathematically infinite and an infinite concentration drives enzymatic reactions unidirectionally. In support of this, a number of enzymes, such as proton-linked monocarboxylate transporters (MCTs), lactate dehydrogenases (LDHs) or sodium/hydrogen exchangers have been experimentally determined to catalyse unidirectionally. In addition, enzyme complexes, such as the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDHc), are also known to catalyse unidirectionally. Scientific concepts, such as the original Citric Acid Cycle proposed that acids are metabolized in a clockwise direction. The PTC hypothesis provides mechanisms, mathematics and law of nature for biological processes.
  • 1.4K
  • 26 Feb 2021
Topic Review
Aβ-Peptide Production and Conformational Behavior
Alzheimer’s disease  (AD) is the most common type of neurodegenerative disease in the world. Genetic evidence strongly suggests that aberrant generation, aggregation, and/or clearance of neurotoxic amyloid-β peptides (Aβ) triggers the disease. Aβ accumulates at the points of contact of neurons in ordered cords and fibrils, forming the so-called senile plaques. Aβ isoforms of different lengths are found in healthy human brains regardless of age and appear to play a role in signaling pathways in the brain and to have neuroprotective properties at low concentrations. This entry describes molecular mechanisms of amyloid-β precursor protein processing in AD.
  • 1.4K
  • 11 Oct 2021
Topic Review
Abscisic Acid (ABA)
Abscisic acid (ABA) is a significant regulator of numerous flexible traits of plant developmental improvements, including embryo maturation, germination, seed dormancy, floral initiation, and root growth.
  • 1.4K
  • 25 Aug 2021
Topic Review
Mammalian Zona Pellucida Glycoproteins
Zona pellucida (ZP) plays an important role in the oocyte lifespan providing mechanical protection and defense against polyspermic fertilization by directly modulating sperm function.
  • 1.4K
  • 27 May 2021
Topic Review
LSEC in Post-Hepatectomy Liver Regeneration/Failure
Liver sinusoids are lined by liver sinusoidal endothelial cells (LSEC), which represent approximately 15 to 20% of the liver cells, but only 3% of the total liver volume. LSEC have unique functions, such as fluid filtration, blood vessel tone modulation, blood clotting, inflammatory cell recruitment, and metabolite and hormone trafficking. Different subtypes of liver endothelial cells are also known to control liver zonation and hepatocyte function. The liver has the exceptional ability to regenerate from small remnants. The past decades have seen increasing awareness in the role of non-parenchymal cells in liver regeneration despite not being the most represented population. While a lot of knowledge has emerged, clarification is needed regarding the role of LSEC in sensing shear stress and on their participation in the inductive phase of regeneration by priming the hepatocytes and delivering mitogenic factors. It is also unclear if bone marrow-derived LSEC participate in the proliferative phase of liver regeneration. Similarly, data are scarce as to LSEC having a role in the termination phase of the regeneration process. Here, we review what is known about the interaction between LSEC and other liver cells during the different phases of liver regeneration. We next explain extended hepatectomy and small liver transplantation, which lead to “small for size syndrome” (SFSS), a lethal liver failure. SFSS is linked to endothelial denudation, necrosis, and lobular disturbance. Using the knowledge learned from partial hepatectomy studies on LSEC, we expose several techniques that are, or could be, used to avoid the “small for size syndrome” after extended hepatectomy or small liver transplantation. 
  • 1.4K
  • 17 Aug 2021
Topic Review
Rapamycin Signaling at Muscle Fiber Fate in Sarcopenia
Sarcopenia, the age-related decline of muscle mass and strength/function is a major risk factor for disability and loss of independence in late life. Studies have shown that behavioral interventions (e.g., physical activity, adapted nutrition) reduce the rate of muscle wasting during aging. However, an incomplete understanding of the mechanisms driving age-related muscle loss has hampered the development of effective drugs to prevent or treat sarcopenia. Altered muscle protein metabolism is considered to be one of the main factors underlying the development and progression of sarcopenia. While basal rates of muscle protein synthesis (MPS) and degradation (MPD) seem to be unaffected by age, the anabolic response to a variety of stimuli (e.g., exercise, nutrient ingestion) is blunted during aging. The mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) is a key regulator of muscle anabolic and catabolic pathways and, hence, a promising target for interventions against sarcopenia.
  • 1.4K
  • 30 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Rapid DNA Systems
The generation of STR profiles currently requires highly skilled geneticists and dedicated laboratories. Therefore, there is an urgent need for fast and reliable DNA devices for analysis directly at the crime scene. A few systems became commercially available for integrated forensic DNA analysis to be used in the field, which are fully integrated platforms that can generate STR profiles from (reference) samples within 2 hours. In the following a distinction is made between 'rapid DNA analysis' - defined as using a rapid DNA instrument without human intervention - and 'modified rapid DNA analysis'' which is defined as using a rapid DNA instrument in combination with human interpretation of the DNA analyses results.
  • 1.4K
  • 10 Feb 2023
Topic Review
Integrins
Integrins belong to a group of cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) which is a large group of membrane-bound proteins. They are involved both in cell attachment to the extracellular matrix (ECM) and in signal transduction from the ECM to the cells. They also take part in numerous biological activities, namely extravasation, cell-to-cell adhesion, cell migration, and function as receptors for certain viruses, including adenovirus, echovirus, hantavirus, foot-and-mouth disease, polio virus and severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). CAMs also include selectins, cadherins, immunoglobulin superfamily and other molecules, including CD44. Cell adhesion molecules are classified using the CD nomenclature (from 1 to 130). Integrins receive and transmit biochemical and mechanical signals through the cell membrane in both directions. Signals which develop inside the cell lead to conformational changes of the molecule and transmission of integrin into a state which enables ligand binding. The name “integrins” has been coined to denote the function they have maintaining a multicellular organism as a whole. They significantly affect the integrity of the cytoskeleton–ECM connections.
  • 1.4K
  • 04 Aug 2021
Topic Review
Naturally Occurring Heavy Metal Hyperaccumulators
A hyperaccumulator is a plant which can absorb and accumulate heavy metals in its above-ground sections (especially the leaves) at values exceeding specific metal thresholds. 
  • 1.4K
  • 21 Sep 2022
Topic Review
BDNF expression in GABAergic interneurons
Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is a major neuronal growth factor that is widely expressed in the central nervous system. It is synthesized as a glycosylated precursor protein, (pro)BDNF and post-translationally converted to the mature form, (m)BDNF. BDNF is known to be produced and secreted by cortical glutamatergic principal cells (PCs); however, it remains a question whether it can also be synthesized by other neuron types, in particular, GABAergic interneurons (INs). Therefore, we utilized immunocytochemical labeling and reverse transcription quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) to investigate the cellular distribution of proBDNF and its RNA in glutamatergic and GABAergic neurons of the mouse cortex. Immunofluorescence labeling revealed that mBDNF, as well as proBDNF, localized to both the neuronal populations in the hippocampus. The precursor proBDNF protein showed a perinuclear distribution pattern, overlapping with the rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER), the site of protein synthesis. RT-qPCR of samples obtained using laser capture microdissection (LCM) or fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) of hippocampal and cortical neurons further demonstrated the abundance of BDNF transcripts in both glutamatergic and GABAergic cells. Thus, our data provide compelling evidence that BDNF can be synthesized by both principal cells and INs of the cortex.
  • 1.4K
  • 26 Oct 2020
Topic Review
Eukaryotic Cell
Eukaryotic cells, are complex cells that evolved through endosymbiosis when one cell (typically bacterial, forming mitochondria and plastids) is incorporated by a host cell. It might well be that other cellular organelles are also of endosymbiotic nature. 
  • 1.4K
  • 18 Mar 2021
Topic Review
Genetic Engineering Technology
Genetic engineering refers to the specific molecular biological modification of DNA sequences. With the rapid development of genetic engineering methods, especially the breakthroughs in guiding endonuclease technology, gene remodeling of crops has become simpler, more precise, and efficient. Genetic engineering techniques can be used to develop crops with superior traits such as high trace elements and high plant nutrients, providing an important tool to meet the needs of nearly 7.6 billion people in the world for crop yield and quality and to achieve sustainable development.
  • 1.4K
  • 13 Apr 2022
Topic Review
Targeted Cytokine Delivery for Cancer Treatment
Anti-tumor properties of several cytokines have already been investigated in multiple experiments and clinical trials. However, those studies evidenced substantial toxicities, even at low cytokine doses, and the lack of tumor specificity. These factors significantly limit clinical applications. Due to their high specificity and affinity, tumor-specific monoclonal antibodies or their antigen-binding fragments are capable of delivering fused cytokines to tumors and, therefore, of decreasing the number and severity of side effects, as well as of enhancing the therapeutic index. Targeted cytokine-mediated activation of the immune cells may trigger massive cytokine production at the disease site, making the local environmental conditions more favorable for local immune system cell functioning.
  • 1.4K
  • 10 Feb 2023
Topic Review Peer Reviewed
Dnase1 Family in Autoimmunity
The deoxyribonuclease 1 (Dnase1) family is a key family of endonucleases that degrades DNA. Loss of Dnase1 family function causes several diseases where the host’s immune system targets the host, such as systemic lupus erythematosus, hypocomplementemic urticarial vasculitis syndrome. 
  • 1.4K
  • 18 Apr 2022
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