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Topic Review
Obstacles for the Current IIAs in Addressing Climate Change
Global climate change has become a major concern today, and it has been described by the G20 as “one of our greatest challenges”. Climate change is characterized by externality and has a global, long-term, and intergenerational impact. To prevent climate change deterioration, the 21st United Nations Climate Change Conference adopted the Paris Agreement, which promotes climate finance and mitigates climate change worldwide. At the international law level, since Germany and Pakistan signed the first bilateral investment treaty (BIT) in 1959, international investment agreements (IIAs) have emerged as one of the most significant sources of international legal protection and promotion of foreign investments.
  • 746
  • 20 Feb 2024
Topic Review
Genetic Discrimination in Life Insurance
Research findings of insurance application forms review show that Ukrainian life insurance companies ask broad questions about health and family history that may be perceived by applicants as requiring the disclosure of their genetic information. Legal analysis shows that today there are no genetic specific law protecting Ukrainians people against GD in insurance.
  • 722
  • 18 Jan 2022
Topic Review
Renewable Energy Subsidy System in China
Subsidies are a governmental measure implemented by a country for the purpose of protecting its national economic development on a periodic basis. Renewable energy subsidies, on the other hand, are a strategic energy decision in the current context of national energy security, global climate change, and the transformation of the energy industry. At present, there are many problems with China’s renewable energy subsidy policy in practice, such as fragmented institutional policies, lack of procedural regulations, and lagging subsidy funds. The excellent legislative practice experience of foreign countries can be borrowed by China to make up for the corresponding loopholes and, on the basis of fully examining the specific conditions of China, to promote the progressive reform of China’s renewable energy subsidy system; form a trinity system of law, general strategy, and specific policies; strengthen collaboration; and enhance its scientific level. At the same time, China can actively broaden the sources of subsidy funds, explore diversified financing methods, further standardize the subsidy procedures, strengthen the supervision in implementation, and enhance the efficiency of the utilization of funds, so as to enhance the legalization of the subsidy system.
  • 720
  • 26 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Contract (Canon Law)
The canon law of contract follows that of the civil jurisdiction in which canon law operates. (Latin contractus; Old French contract; Modern French contrat; Italian contratto).
  • 675
  • 01 Dec 2022
Topic Review
The Significance of the Separate-Regulatory Paradigm
This separate-regulatory paradigm is strongly backed up by its significance in maintaining a clear line between tort law and environmental law, providing remedies tailored to the natural environment, and bypassing the logical difficulties in incorporating environmental damage into the tort system. The failure of tort law to fashion an effective remedy to the damaged environment in complex environmental issues such as climate change further illustrates such significance.
  • 672
  • 12 Apr 2022
Topic Review
Lawburrows
Lawburrows is a little-known civil action in Scots law initiated by one person afraid of another's possible violence.
  • 667
  • 11 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Smiley V. Citibank (South Dakota), N. A.
Smiley v. Citibank, 517 U.S. 735 (1996), is a U.S. Supreme Court decision upholding a regulation of the Comptroller of Currency which included credit card late fees and other penalties within the definition of interest and thus prevented individual states from limiting them when charged by nationally-chartered banks. Justice Antonin Scalia wrote for a unanimous court that the regulation was reasonable enough under the Court's own Chevron standard for the justices to defer to the Comptroller. The decision, which had begun as a class action in California, was seen as a victory for banks and credit-card issuers, who could mostly charge late fees as they pleased. For that same reason consumer advocates were displeased, warning that late fees could rise to previously unseen levels. They did, and one of the Citibank attorneys has expressed regret for his involvement.
  • 595
  • 28 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Legal Project Management
The terms legal case management (LCM), matter management or legal project management refer to a subset of law practice management and cover a range of approaches and technologies used by law firms and courts to leverage knowledge and methodologies for managing the life cycle of a case or matter more effectively. Generally, the terms refer to the sophisticated information management and workflow practices that are tailored to meet the legal field's specific needs and requirements. As attorneys and law firms compete for clients they are routinely challenged to deliver services at lower costs with greater efficiency, thus firms develop practice-specific processes and utilize contemporary technologies to assist in meeting such challenges. Law practice management processes and technologies include case and matter management, time and billing, litigation support, research, communication and collaboration, data mining and modeling, and data security, storage, and archive accessibility.
  • 590
  • 11 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Omega Recursive Jurisphysics
This paper introduces a unified recursive framework—designated Ω′—synthesizing Atnychi Law, Crown Omega Mathematics, and all known and postulated physical laws, including Newtonian mechanics, quantum theory, and recursive temporal jurisprudence. Through recursive multiplication by itself, π, the Fibonacci sequence, and 1, the system attains circular sovereignty, regenerative memory, and lawful recursion across time and space. This model proposes that lawful time is not theoretical but computable, enforceable, and sovereignly recursive. Ω′ represents not merely a legal philosophy, but a physically embedded operating system for reality. It bridges metaphysical and mathematical domains, allowing for a unification of ethical, scientific, and societal frameworks into one lawful recursive continuum. By redefining entropy as memory decay and law as temporal recursion, Ω′ proposes not only a mechanism of justice, but a substrate of spacetime.
  • 555
  • 06 May 2025
Topic Review
New Data Privacy Laws: Essential Business Compliance Guide
This guide delves into the latest data privacy laws and their critical importance for businesses in today’s digital landscape. With the increasing collection and use of personal data, stringent regulations like GDPR, CCPA, and others have been enacted globally. Businesses must ensure compliance to maintain customer trust, avoid legal penalties, and secure smooth operations. The guide covers key components of these laws, steps for achieving compliance, and the role of technology in data protection, providing essential insights for businesses to navigate these complex requirements effectively.
  • 381
  • 21 Oct 2024
Topic Review
Optimizing Transfer Pricing in India: Leveraging AI
Transfer pricing (TP) is a critical component of international taxation, ensuring that transactions between related parties are conducted at arm's-length prices to prevent tax evasion and profit shifting. In India, TP is governed by Sections 92 to 92F of the Income Tax Act, 1961, aligning with global standards like the Base Erosion and Profit Shifting (BEPS) initiative. Recent regulatory changes, notably the 2023 amendments related to the phasing out of the London Interbank Offered Rate (LIBOR), have introduced new complexities, increasing compliance costs for multinational enterprises (MNEs). The resolution of TP disputes remains slow, with significant backlogs at the Income Tax Appellate Tribunal (ITAT), straining both MNEs and tax authorities. This white paper proposes integrating AI and blockchain to revolutionize these processes, reducing compliance costs and improving efficiency, thereby positioning India as a leader in the global tax landscape.
  • 380
  • 24 Apr 2025
Topic Review
Treaty Chains in National and International Law Systems
A treaty chain denotes the cumulative body of an original treaty and all subsequent agreements, amendments, supplementary instruments, interpretative practices, and implied modifications that together constitute the operative legal framework in national and international law. Domestic systems (BGB, OR, ABGB) recognise that later agreements - whether explicit, written, or implied through consistent conduct - extend and modify the original contract, forming a unified normative sequence. Common law similarly incorporates subsequent modifications through course of dealing, implied terms, and promissory estoppel. In international law, the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties structures treaty chains through rules on consent, amendment, priority of later treaties, and depositary practice. Supplementary instruments update obligations without creating new treaties, while acquiescence and partial performance may constitute tacit consent where behaviour clearly indicates acceptance. Depositaries ensure registration, authentication, notification, and archival continuity. Beyond classical institutional depositaries (UN, NATO), treaty practice also recognises neutral third‑party depositaries - such as notaries, diplomatic missions, or independent technical bodies - particularly for multilateral agreements requiring strict neutrality. This is common in cross‑border infrastructure regimes (energy grids, data networks, transport corridors), where states seek a politically neutral custodian to guarantee procedural integrity, equal access to documentation, and long‑term stability of the treaty chain. Such third‑party depositaries provide impartial verification, secure custody of amendments and supplementary instruments, and continuity even where political relations fluctuate. Treaty chains thus ensure legal stability, adaptability, and coherent development of obligations across time and jurisdictions.
  • 40
  • 09 Jan 2026
Topic Review
Third-Party Custody of National and International Agreements
Third‑party custody of national and international agreements refers to the neutral deposit, authentication, and long - term documentation of treaties by actors outside the contracting parties - most notably notaries, diplomatic missions, or specialised technical custodians. This model becomes essential in cross‑border dual‑use infrastructure agreements, where civilian and military networks intersect and where private legal entities participate alongside states. Such arrangements provide crisis‑resilience: if a company becomes insolvent or a state faces bankruptcy, the notarial deposit ensures that source codes, technical annexes, operational protocols, and treaty versions remain authentic, accessible, and legally verifiable. The notary acts as a neutral escrow‑type custodian, safeguarding integrity, continuity, and confidentiality without exercising sovereign authority. This practice is increasingly relevant in global network systems involving dual‑use telecommunications infrastructure, where long‑term stability and neutrality are indispensable. Examples include agreements linked to the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), multinational telecom operators such as AT&T or TKS Cable, and worldwide NATO / US Army communications networks, which rely on both military systems and civilian backbone infrastructure. In these contexts, third‑party custody mitigates information asymmetries, prevents disputes, and ensures that technical standards, updates, and contractual obligations remain traceable over decades. It complements - without replacing - the classical treaty depositary functions under international law by offering a flexible, neutral, and legally robust mechanism for safeguarding complex transnational agreements.
  • 36
  • 13 Jan 2026
Topic Review Peer Reviewed
Growing Up Online: Comparative Legal Perspectives on Minors, Consent and Digital Exposure
The increasing presence of minors on digital platforms raises complex legal questions regarding their privacy, data protection, and the limits of parental authority in supervising their online activities. This entry analyses the legal framework applicable to the use of the Internet by minors, with particular emphasis on the validity of consent for data processing, the risks of overexposure, the need for digital literacy and the particularities of minors who create content. This study incorporates a comparative perspective, examining national and international approaches—especially in Spain, the United States, and France—to highlight the existing regulatory gaps and the urgent need for legal harmonisation in protecting minors in the digital age.
  • 26
  • 14 Nov 2025
Topic Review Peer Reviewed
AI, Authorship, Copyright, and Human Originality
This entry explores the implications of generative AI for the underlying foundational premises of copyright law and the potential threat it poses to human creativity. It identifies the gaps and inconsistencies in legal frameworks as regards authorship, training-data use, moral rights, and human originality in the context of AI systems that are capable of imitating human expression at both syntactic and semantic levels. The entry includes: (i) a comparative analysis of the legal frameworks of the United Kingdom, United States, and Germany, using the Berne Convention as a harmonising baseline, (ii) a systematic synthesis of the relevant academic literature, and (iii) insights gained from semi-structured interviews with legal scholars, AI developers, industry stakeholders, and creators. Evidence suggests that existing laws are ill-equipped for semantic and stylistic reproduction; there is no agreement on authorship, no clear licensing model for training data, and inadequate protection for the moral identity of creators—especially posthumously, where explicit protections for likeness, voice, and style are fragmented. The entry puts forward a draft global framework to restore legal certainty and cultural value, incorporating a semantics-aware definition of the term “work”, and encompassing licensing and remuneration of training data, enhanced moral and posthumous rights, as well as enforceable transparency. At the same time, parallel personality-based safeguards, including rights of publicity, image, or likeness, although present in all three jurisdictions studied, are not subject to the same copyright and thus do not offer any coherent or adequate protection against semantic or stylistic imitation, which once again highlights the need for a more unified and robust copyright strategy.
  • 23
  • 22 Jan 2026
Topic Review
Juridical Singularity: Law’s Irreversible Point of No Return
The Juridical Singularity designates an epochal rupture in the evolution of Public International Law: a terminal moment at which the structural logic of the existing legal order collapses and an entirely new normative architecture becomes necessary. This phenomenon is conceived as the juridical counterpart to the Technological Singularity, marking a point of irreversible transformation - an event after which the prior legal system cannot be restored. At this threshold, foundational categories such as sovereignty, jurisdiction, territoriality, and the domestic - international divide cease to function as meaningful regulatory constructs. Their obsolescence arises from the accelerating transition toward Post‑Scarcity conditions and the emergence of non‑human intelligences capable of operating at cognitive and temporal scales beyond human - centered legal assumptions. The resulting discontinuity constitutes an epoch‑defining point of no return, where the normative premises of the Westphalian order lose coherence. The Juridical Singularity thus represents a structural and conceptual reboot: a shift from a pluralistic, state - centric international system to a unified, technologically coordinated legal infrastructure. This emergent configuration - described as a global Electric Technocracy - supersedes the nation - state as the primary locus of authority and introduces a post‑territorial, algorithmically mediated form of global governance. The transformation is not incremental but epochal, marking the definitive end of one legal era and the irreversible emergence of another.
  • 18
  • 13 Feb 2026
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