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Topic Review
Galectin-9 and Osteopontin Reflect COVID-19
Numbers of patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) have increased rapidly worldwide. Plasma levels of full-length galectin-9 (FL-Gal9) and osteopontin (FL-OPN) as well as their truncated forms (Tr-Gal9, Ud-OPN, respectively), are representative inflammatory biomarkers. Here, we measured FL-Gal9, FL-OPN, Tr-Gal9, and Ud-OPN in 94 plasma samples obtained from 23 COVID-19-infected patients with mild clinical symptoms (CV), 25 COVID-19 patients associated with pneumonia (CP), and 14 patients with bacterial infection (ID). The four proteins were significantly elevated in the CP group when compared with healthy individuals. ROC analysis between the CV and CP groups showed that C-reactive protein had the highest ability to differentiate, followed by Tr-Gal9 and ferritin. Spearman’s correlation analysis showed that Tr-Gal9 and Ud-OPN but not FL-Gal9 and FL-OPN, had a significant association with laboratory markers for lung function, inflammation, coagulopathy, and kidney function in CP patients. CP patients treated with tocilizumab had reduced levels of FL-Gal9, Tr-Gal9, and Ud-OPN.
  • 460
  • 24 May 2021
Topic Review
Neutrophil Heterogeneity in Cancer
Neutrophils represent the most abundant cell type of leukocytes in the human blood and have been considered a vital player in the innate immune system and the first line of defense against invading pathogens. Neutrophils play an active role in the immune response during cancer development. They could exhibit both pro-oncogenic and anti-tumor activities under the influence of various mediators in the tumor microenvironment. Neutrophils can be divided into several subpopulations, thus contradicting the traditional concept of neutrophils as a homogeneous population with a specific function in the innate immunity and opening new horizons for cancer therapy. 
  • 460
  • 28 Jan 2023
Topic Review
Early Markers in IBD
Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) are chronic conditions that primarily affect the gastrointestinal tract, with a complex pathogenesis; they are characterized by a significant heterogeneity of clinical presentations and of inflammatory pathways that sustain intestinal damage. After the introduction of the first biological therapies, the pipeline of therapies for IBD has been constantly expanding, and a significant number of new molecules is expected in the next few years.
  • 457
  • 27 Mar 2021
Topic Review
Innate Immune Cells in SS
Sjogren’s syndrome (SS) is a chronic autoimmune disease characterized by the infiltration of exocrine glands including salivary and lachrymal glands responsible for the classical dry eyes and mouth symptoms (sicca syndrome). The spectrum of disease manifestations stretches beyond the classical sicca syndrome with systemic manifestations including arthritis, interstitial lung involvement, and neurological involvement. The pathophysiology underlying SS is not well deciphered, but several converging lines of evidence have supported the conjuncture of different factors interplaying together to foster the initiation and perpetuation of the disease
  • 454
  • 24 Feb 2021
Topic Review
Myeloid-Derived Suppressor Cells in Cancer and COVID-19
Myeloid-derived suppressor cells MDSCs are a heterogeneous population of cells that expand beyond their physiological regulation during pathologies such as cancer, inflammation, bacterial, and viral infections. Their key feature is their remarkable ability to suppress T cell and natural killer NK cell responses. Certain risk factors for severe COVID-19 disease, such as obesity and diabetes, are associated with oxidative stress. The resulting inflammation and oxidative stress can negatively impact the host. Similarly, cancer cells exhibit a sustained increase in intrinsic ROS generation that maintains the oncogenic phenotype and drives tumor progression. By disrupting endoplasmic reticulum calcium channels, intracellular ROS accumulation can disrupt protein folding and ultimately lead to proteostasis failure. In cancer and COVID-19, MDSCs consist of the same two subtypes (PMN-MSDC and M-MDSC). While the main role of polymorphonuclear MDSCs is to dampen the response of T cells and NK killer cells, they also produce reactive oxygen species ROS and reactive nitrogen species RNS.
  • 453
  • 02 Feb 2023
Topic Review
Technologies Used to Discover Immune Cell Heterogeneity
During homeostasis, immune cells perform daily housekeeping functions to maintain heart health by acting as sentinels for tissue damage and foreign particles.
  • 452
  • 30 Dec 2021
Topic Review
Myeloid-Derived Suppressor Cells in Umbilical Cord Blood
Myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) represent a heterogeneous population of myeloid cells that suppress immune responses in cancer, infection, and trauma. They mainly act by inhibiting T-cells, natural-killer cells, and dendritic cells, and also by inducing T-regulatory cells, and modulating macrophages. Although they are mostly associated with adverse prognosis of the underlying disease entity, they may display positive effects in specific situations, such as in allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT), where they attenuate graft-versus-host disease (GVHD). They also contribute to the feto-maternal tolerance, and in the fetus growth process, whereas several pregnancy complications have been associated with their defects. Human umbilical cord blood (UCB) is a source rich in MDSCs.
  • 451
  • 18 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Endosomal TLR Agonists Improving NK Cell Function
Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are the most well-defined pattern recognition receptors (PRR) of several cell types recognizing pathogens and triggering innate immunity. TLRs are also expressed on tumor cells and tumor microenvironment (TME) cells, including natural killer (NK) cells. Cell surface TLRs primarily recognize extracellular ligands from bacteria and fungi, while endosomal TLRs recognize microbial DNA or RNA. TLR engagement activates intracellular pathways leading to the activation of transcription factors regulating gene expression of several inflammatory molecules. Endosomal TLR agonists may be considered as new immunotherapeutic adjuvants for dendritic cell (DC) vaccines able to improve anti-tumor immunity and cancer patient outcomes.
  • 451
  • 09 Mar 2023
Topic Review
Tumor Immune Microenvironment in ccRCC
Clear cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC) is a type of kidney cancer that arises from the cells lining the tubes of the kidney. The tumor immune microenvironment (TIME) of ccRCC is a complex interplay of various immune cells, cytokines, and signaling pathways. One of the critical features of the ccRCC TIME is the presence of infiltrating immune cells, including T cells, B cells, natural killer cells, dendritic cells, and myeloid-derived suppressor cells. The complex interplay between the immune system and the tumor in ccRCC has important implications for developing new treatment strategies. Immunotherapy, which aims to activate the immune system to recognize and eliminate tumor cells, has shown promise in the treatment of ccRCC, and several immune-based therapies have been approved for clinical use.
  • 451
  • 08 May 2023
Topic Review
Blood-Borne Proteins in Alzheimer’s Disease
The blood–brain barrier (BBB) restricts entry of neurotoxic plasma components, blood cells, and pathogens into the brain, leading to proper neuronal functioning. BBB impairment leads to blood-borne protein infiltration such as prothrombin, thrombin, prothrombin kringle-2, fibrinogen, fibrin, and other harmful substances. Thus, microglial activation and release of pro-inflammatory mediators commence, resulting in neuronal damage and leading to impaired cognition via neuroinflammatory responses, which are important features observed in the brain of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) patients.
  • 451
  • 17 May 2023
Topic Review
Targeted Microbial Therapies for Food Allergy
Food allergies have been rising in prevalence in recent decades and are also the most common cause of anaphylaxis in children. Food allergies impose significant burdens on patients and families due to the need for specialized diets and constant monitoring for allergens in food, increased healthcare usage, and anxiety related to developing an anaphylactic reaction.
  • 451
  • 19 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Antitumor Peptide-Based Vaccine
The success of the immune checkpoint blockade has provided a proof of concept that immune cells are capable of attacking tumors in the clinic. However, clinical benefit is only observed in less than 20% of the patients due to the non-specific activation of immune cells by the immune checkpoint blockade. Developing tumor-specific immune responses is a challenging task that can be achieved by targeting tumor antigens to generate tumor-specific T-cell responses. By selecting appropriate epitopes from tumor antigens with suitable adjuvants, peptides can elicit robust antitumor responses in both mice and humans.
  • 450
  • 11 Jan 2022
Topic Review
Immunotherapy during the Immediate Perioperative Period
Tumor excision is a necessary life-saving procedure in most solid cancers. However, surgery and the days before and following it, known as the immediate perioperative period (IPP), entail numerous prometastatic processes, including the suppression of antimetastatic immunity and direct stimulation of minimal residual disease (MRD). Thus, the IPP is pivotal in determining long-term cancer outcomes, presenting a short window of opportunity to circumvent perioperative risk factors by employing several therapeutic approaches, including immunotherapy. Nevertheless, immunotherapy is rarely examined or implemented during this short timeframe, due to both established and hypothetical contraindications to surgery. This entry summarizes existing and potential immuno-theraputic approaches to exploit the immediate perioperative period to prevent future metastatic disease.
  • 446
  • 23 Aug 2023
Topic Review
Butyrophilins
The efficacy of current immunotherapies remains limited in many solid epithelial malignancies. Recent investigations into the biology of butyrophilin (BTN) and butyrophilin-like (BTNL) molecules, however, suggest these molecules are potent immunosuppressors of antigen-specific protective T cell activity in tumor beds. BTN and BTNL molecules also associate with each other dynamically on cellular surfaces in specific contexts, which modulates their biology. 
  • 445
  • 24 May 2023
Topic Review
Sublingual Immunotherapy for Aeroallergens
Sublingual immunotherapy represents an important progress in the use of personalized medicine in children with allergic asthma. It is a viable option for house dust mite driven asthma and in subjects with the asthma associated with allergic rhinitis.
  • 442
  • 08 Feb 2021
Topic Review
Cytokine Profile with Multiple Sclerosis Following Exercise
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is defined as an immune-mediated inflammatory, neurodegenerative, and demyelinating disease that impacts the central nervous system (CNS) in young individuals. 
  • 441
  • 18 Aug 2022
Topic Review
T Cell Chemotaxis and Infiltration in Glioblastoma
Glioblastoma is an immunologically ‘cold’ tumor, which are characterized by absent or minimal numbers of tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs). For those tumors that have been invaded by lymphocytes, they are profoundly exhausted and ineffective. While many immunotherapy approaches seek to reinvigorate immune cells at the tumor, this requires TILs to be present. 
  • 440
  • 04 Nov 2021
Topic Review
Clinical Relevance of Circulating Tumor Cells in Immunology
Circulating tumor cells (CTCs) are a heterogeneous population of tumor cells that have shed from a tumor into the lymphatics and vasculature, ultimately disseminating into blood circulation. Immune modulation is a hallmark of cancer. Cancer–immune interaction shapes the course of disease progression at every step of tumorigenesis, including metastasis, of which circulating tumor cells (CTCs) are regarded as an indicator. 
  • 439
  • 07 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Molecular Analysis of Melanoma Insensitivity
Melanomas are diagnosed at various stages of the disease and in different anatomical positions, which makes it rather difficult to determine and choose the appropriate treatment options. The identification of biomarkers may present clinicians with the ability to determine which treatments will be successful and which may fail due to the development of resistance. One such biomarker informing clinicians what ICI not to use to treat patients is lymphocyte activation gene 3 (LAG-3), a molecule expressed on the surface of and affecting the functionality of regulatory T cells (Tregs).
  • 438
  • 29 Mar 2022
Topic Review
KIR immunogenetics in BKV infection
BK virus (BKV) is a polyomavirus with high seroprevalence in the general population with an unremarkable clinical presentation in healthy people, but a potential for causing serious complications in immunosuppressed transplanted patients. Reactivation or primary infection in kidney allograft recipients may lead to allograft dysfunction and subsequent loss. Currently, there is no widely accepted specific treatment for BKV infection and reduction of immunosuppressive therapy is the mainstay therapy. Given this and the sequential appearance of viruria-viremia-nephropathy, screening and early detection are of utmost importance. 
  • 437
  • 29 Dec 2020
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