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Topic Review
STAT6
Inflammation is the main driver of tumor initiation and progression in colitis-associated colorectal cancer (CAC). Recent findings have indicated that the signal transducer and activator of transcription 6 (STAT6) plays a fundamental role in the early stages of CAC, and STAT6 knockout (STAT6−/−) mice are highly resistant to CAC development. Regulatory T (Treg) cells play a major role in coordinating immunomodulation in cancer; however, the role of STAT6 in the induction and function of Treg cells is poorly understood. To clarify the contribution of STAT6 to CAC, STAT6−/− and wild type (WT) mice were subjected to an AOM/DSS regimen, and the frequency of peripheral and local Treg cells was determined during the progression of CAC. When STAT6 was lacking, a remarkable reduction in tumor growth was observed, which was associated with decreased inflammation and an increased number of CD4+CD25+Foxp3+ cells. STAT6 has a direct role in the induction and function of Treg cells during CAC development.  
  • 568
  • 22 Sep 2021
Topic Review
The CPGs for Limbed Locomotion
The neuronal networks that generate locomotion are well understood in swimming animals such as the lamprey, zebrafish and tadpole. The networks controlling locomotion in tetrapods remain, however, still enigmatic with an intricate motor pattern required for the control of the entire limb during the support, lift off, and flexion phase, and most demandingly when the limb makes contact with ground again. It is clear that the inhibition that occurs between bursts in each step cycle is produced by V2b and V1 interneurons, and that a deletion of these interneurons leads to synchronous flexor–extensor bursting. The ability to generate rhythmic bursting is distributed over all segments comprising part of the central pattern generator network (CPG).
  • 568
  • 06 Jun 2021
Topic Review
B Lymphocytes in Brief
B lymphocytes, or B cells, are essential warriors of our immune system, playing a central role in defending the body against infections and diseases. These specialized white blood cells originate in the bone marrow, where they undergo a complex maturation process. B cells possess unique membrane-bound receptors called B cell receptors (BCRs) that enable them to recognize specific antigens on pathogens. When a BCR binds to its corresponding antigen, it triggers a chain reaction leading to B cell activation. Activated B cells have two main fates: they can transform into plasma cells, dedicated antibody factories that churn out antibodies to neutralize pathogens, or become memory B cells. Memory B cells "remember" past infections, allowing for a swift and potent immune response upon re-exposure to the same pathogen. In essence, B lymphocytes are the guardians of our immune memory, enabling our bodies to fight off invaders and stay resilient against future threats.
  • 567
  • 08 Oct 2023
Topic Review
The Mutant p53 Secretome
p53 suppresses tumorigenesis by activating a plethora of effector pathways. While most of these operate primarily inside of cells to limit proliferation and survival of incipient cancer cells, many extend to the extracellular space. In particular, p53 controls expression and secretion of numerous extracellular factors that are either soluble or contained within extracellular vesicles such as exosomes. As part of the cellular secretome, they execute key roles in cell-cell communication and extracellular matrix remodeling. Mutations in the p53-encoding TP53 gene are the most frequent genetic alterations in cancer cells, and therefore, have profound impact on the composition of the tumor cell secretome.
  • 565
  • 10 Jun 2021
Topic Review
Hop-Derived Bitter Acids
In this entry, we introduce the effects and underlying mechanisms of hop-derived bitter acids found in beer. Iso-α-acids (IAAs), the main bitter components of beer, enhance hippocampus-dependent memory and prefrontal cortex-associated cognitive function via dopamine neurotransmission activation. Matured hop bitter acids (MHBAs), oxidized components with β-carbonyl moieties derived from aged hops, also enhance memory functions via norepinephrine neurotransmission-mediated mechanisms. Furthermore, the effects of both IAAs and MHBAs are attenuated by vagotomy, suggesting that these bitter acids enhance cognitive function via vagus nerve stimulation. Moreover, supplementation with IAAs attenuates neuroinflammation and cognitive impairments in various rodent models of neurodegeneration including Alzheimer’s disease. Daily supplementation with hop-derived bitter acids (e.g., 35 mg/day of MHBAs) may be a safe and effective strategy to stimulate the vagus nerve and thus enhance cognitive function.
  • 565
  • 09 Jul 2021
Topic Review
Transcription/Replication Conflicts in Myelomagenesis
Multiple myeloma is a hematologic cancer characterized by the accumulation of malignant plasma cells in the bone marrow. It remains a mostly incurable disease due to the inability to overcome refractory disease and drug-resistant relapse. Oncogenic transformation of PC in multiple myeloma is thought to occur within the secondary lymphoid organs. However, the precise molecular events leading to myelomagenesis remain obscure. Here, we identified genes involved in the prevention and the resolution of conflicts between the replication and transcription significantly overexpressed during the plasma cell differentiation process and in multiple myeloma cells. We discussed the potential role of these factors in myelomagenesis.
  • 565
  • 26 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Oocyte Maturation in Mammals
The quality and maturation of an oocyte not only play decisive roles in fertilization and embryo success, but also have long-term impacts on the later growth and development of the fetus. Female fertility declines with age, reflecting a decline in oocyte quantity. 
  • 565
  • 07 Jun 2023
Topic Review
Cyclic Nigerosyl-Nigerose
Cyclic nigerosyl-nigerose (CNN) is an interesting and innovative nanocarrier for anti-cancer drug delivery in the cross-linked forms previously shown. The major advantage of CNN is that its natural structure is a reservoir for oxygen. CNN is a non-reducing cyclic tetrasaccharide with an unusual structure, consisting of four d-glucopyranosyl molecules connected by alternate α-(1-3) and α-(1-6) glycosidic bonds.
  • 564
  • 12 May 2021
Topic Review
Netrin-1
Netrin-1 is one of the most well-studied proteins that regulate axonal guidance and synaptogenesis via interaction with its receptors deleted in colorectal cancer (DCC) and UNC5H (unco-ordinated-5 homolog) to activate cell survival, differentiation and proliferation.
  • 562
  • 10 May 2021
Topic Review
Ischemia–Reperfusion Intervention
It has been demonstrated that brief cycles of ischemia followed by reperfusion (IR) applied before exercise can improve performance and, IR intervention, applied immediately after exercise (post-exercise ischemic conditioning—PEIC) exerts a potential ergogenic effect to accelerate recovery. Thus, the purpose of this systematic review with meta-analysis was to identify the effects of PEIC on exercise performance, recovery and the responses of associated physiological parameters, such as creatine kinase, perceived recovery and muscle soreness, over 24 h after its application. From 3281 studies, six involving 106 subjects fulfilled the inclusion criteria. Compared to sham (cuff administration with low pressure) and control interventions (no cuff administration), PEIC led to faster performance recovery (p = 0.004; ES = −0.49) and lower increase in creatine kinase (p < 0.001; effect size (ES) = −0.74) and muscle soreness (p < 0.001; ES = −0.88) over 24 h. The effectiveness of this intervention is more pronounced in subjects with low/moderate fitness level and at least a total time of 10 min of ischemia (e.g., two cycles of 5 min) is necessary to promote positive effects.
  • 561
  • 14 Jul 2021
Topic Review
MZT in Human Embryos and Other Animal Species
Maternal-to-zygotic transition (MZT) of the control of early post-fertilization development is a key-event conditioning the fate of the future embryo, fetus and newborn. Because of the relative paucity of data concerning human embryos, due to ethical concerns and the poor availability of human embryos donated for research, most data have to be derived from animal models, among which those obtained using mouse embryos are most prevalent. Data obtained by studies performed in non-mammalian specie can also provide useful information. 
  • 561
  • 19 Sep 2022
Topic Review
Long-Term Potentiation Mechanisms of Excitatory and Inhibitory Synapses
Neuronal and glial cells are the main components of the brain. Approximately 50% of the brain is neuronal cells; the other half is glial cells, which all play an important role in the mammalian brain. Billions of neurons are connected and communicate via synapses inextricably linked to behavior, memory, and neurological diseases. Synaptic plasticity is a change in neural connection strength that occurs in response to activity. Reorganization of the structural and functional connections of synapses occurs in response to internal or external stimuli, leading to the strengthening or weakening of synaptic connections via synaptic plasticity. Long-term potentiation (LTP) has been widely used as an ideal model for studying synaptic plasticity, learning, and memory.
  • 560
  • 19 Apr 2023
Topic Review
Thioredoxin-Interacting Protein (TXNIP)
Thioredoxin-interacting protein (TXNIP), widely known as thioredoxin-binding protein 2 (TBP2), is a major binding mediator in the thioredoxin (TXN) antioxidant system, which involves a reduction-oxidation (redox) signaling complex and is pivotal for the pathophysiology of some diseases. TXNIP increases reactive oxygen species production and oxidative stress and thereby contributes to apoptosis. 
  • 559
  • 02 Jul 2021
Topic Review
Neural Stem Cell-Based Therapy
Transplantation of neural stem cells (NSCs) has been proposed as an alternative novel therapy to replace damaged neural circuitry after ischemic stroke onset. Nonetheless, albeit the potential of these cells for stroke therapy, many critical challenges are yet to be overcome to reach clinical applications. The major limitation of the NSC-based therapy is its inability to retain most of the donor stem cells after grafting into an ischemic brain area which is lacking of essential oxygen and nutrients for the survival of transplanted cells. Low cell survival rate limits the capacity of NSCs to repair the injured area and this poses a much more difficult challenge to the NSC-based therapy for ischemic stroke. In order to enhance the survival of transplanted cells, several stem cell culture preconditioning strategies have been employed. For ischemic diseases, hypoxic preconditioning is the most commonly applied strategy since the last few decades. Now, the preconditioning strategies have been developed and expanded enormously throughout years of efforts. This entry systematically presented studies searched from PubMed, ScienceDirect, Web of Science, Scopus and the Google Scholar database up to 31 March 2020 based on search words containing the following terms:“precondition” or “pretreatment” and “neural stem cell” and “ischemic stroke”. The searched data comprehensively reported seven major NSC preconditioning strategies including hypoxic condition, small drug molecules such as minocycline, doxycycline, interleukin-6, adjudin, sodium butyrate and nicorandil, as well as electrical stimulation using conductive polymer for ischemic stroke treatment. We discussed therapeutic benefits gained from these preconditioned NSC for in vitro and in vivo stroke studies and the detailed insights of the mechanisms underlying these preconditioning approaches. Nonetheless, there was a scarcity of evidence on the ecacy of these preconditioned NSCs in human clinical studies, therefore, it is still too early to draw a definitive conclusion on the efficacy and safety of this active compound for patient usage. Thus, we suggest for more in-depth clinical investigations of this cell-based therapy to develop into more conscientious and judicious evidence-based therapy for clinical application in the future.
  • 559
  • 02 Jul 2021
Topic Review
Small RNA GcvB
Small non-translated regulatory RNAs control plenty of bacterial vital activities. The small RNA GcvB has been extensively studied, indicating the multifaceted roles of GcvB beyond amino acid metabolism.
  • 559
  • 29 Nov 2021
Topic Review
Pin1 involvement in Vascular Diseases
The vascular endothelium, the active inner layer of the blood vessel, releases a wide array of biologically active molecules acting in an autocrine or paracrine fashion, thereby controlling arterial structure and vasodilatory, thrombolytic, and vaso-protective functions. By controlling the change of the backbones of several cellular substrates, the peptidyl-prolyl cis-trans isomerase Pin1 acts as key fine-tuner and amplifier of multiple signaling pathways, thereby inducing several biological consequences, both in physiological and pathological conditions. Data from the literature indicate a prominent role of Pin1 in regulating vascular homeostasis. 
  • 559
  • 08 Dec 2021
Topic Review
Pepsin Hydrolysis of Orange By-Products
The orange seed is an important by-product obtained from the juice production industry. The juice industry considers seed as a by-product that contains between 17.9% to 26.5% of protein [18]. In fact, the protein obtained from defatted flour can be used as a low-cost source for the generation of peptides through hydrolysis that could have an important role as antioxidant, anticancer, antidiabetic, or antihypertensive peptides.
  • 559
  • 28 May 2021
Topic Review
Tibial Hemimelia's Deformity Reconstruction Surgery
Tibial hemimelia is a rare congenital deficiency with a wide spectrum of pathology and deformity. This paper aims to give a comprehensive review of tibial hemimelia, with a concise summary of the history, pathology, and clinical findings of tibial hemimelia, while providing treatment recommendations and a review of the current literature. Classifications and surgical treatments are discussed, including amputation, limb reconstruction, and lengthening.
  • 557
  • 28 Jun 2021
Topic Review
Mitochondrial-Derived Vesicles
Mitophagy is crucial for maintaining mitochondrial quality. The endosomal–lysosomal system is a more accessible pathway through which subtypes of extracellular vesicles, which also contain mitochondrial constituents, are released for disposal. The inclusion of mitochondrial components into extracellular vesicles occurs in the setting of mild mitochondrial damage and during impairment of lysosomal function. By releasing mitochondrial-derived vesicles, cells limit the unload of mitochondrial damage-associated molecular patterns with proinflammatory activity.
  • 557
  • 17 Nov 2023
Topic Review
Sinonasal Inverted Papilloma and Squamous Cell Carcinoma
Inverted papillomas (IP) are the most common sinonasal tumor with a tendency for recurrence, potential attachment to the orbit and skull base, and risk of malignant degeneration into squamous cell carcinoma (SCC). While the overall rate of recurrence has decreased with the widespread adoption of high-definition endoscopic optics and advanced surgical tools, there remain challenges in managing tumors that are multiply recurrent or involve vital neurovascular structures. The World Health Organization has defined three subtypes of sinonasal Schneiderian papillomas: inverted, exophytic, and oncocytic lesions.
  • 557
  • 23 May 2022
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