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Topic Review
Immune Functions against SARS-CoV-2
Micronutrients have a potential interventional role to strengthen the immune system against the emerging infection caused by COVID-19.
  • 870
  • 07 Dec 2020
Topic Review
Protein-Based Adjuvants
 New-generation vaccines, formulated with subunits or nucleic acids, are less immunogenic than classical vaccines formulated with live-attenuated or inactivated pathogens. This difference has led to an intensified search for additional potent vaccine adjuvants that meet safety and efficacy criteria and confer long-term protection. Notably, despite structural differences, all protein-based adjuvants (PBAs) show significant immunostimulatory properties, eliciting B-cell- and T-cell-mediated immune responses to administered antigens, providing advantages over many adopted adjuvant approaches. Furthermore, PBAs are natural biocompatible and biodegradable substances that induce minimal reactogenicity and toxicity and interact with innate immune receptors, enhancing their endocytosis and modulating subsequent adaptive immune responses. This entry proposes that PBAs can contribute to the development of vaccines against complex pathogens, including intracellular pathogens such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis, those with complex life cycles such as Plasmodium falciparum, those that induce host immune dysfunction such as HIV, those that target immunocompromised individuals such as fungi, those with a latent disease phase such as Herpes, those that are antigenically variable such as SARS-CoV-2 and those that undergo continuous evolution, to reduce the likelihood of outbreaks.
  • 870
  • 09 Dec 2022
Topic Review
NOD2 in Alzheimer’s Diseases
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a devastating neurodegenerative disorder characterized by a progressive decline in cognitive function, including memory loss, language difficulties, and changes in behavior. Researchers have demonstrated the potential of Nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-containing protein 2 (NOD2) receptor agonists in AD treatment. These agonists facilitate the conversation of pro-inflammatory monocytes into patrolling monocytes, leading to the efficient clearance of amyloid-β (Aβ) in the AD-affected cerebrovascular system. This approach surpasses the efficacy of targeting Aβ formation, marking a significant shift in therapeutic strategies. 
  • 866
  • 07 Jul 2023
Topic Review
Metabolic Control of Tumor Myeloid Cells
In tumors, myeloid cells, including tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) and myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs), represent a predominant immune population with significant heterogeneity. 
  • 865
  • 08 Dec 2021
Topic Review
Fungal Host Defence
Humans have developed complex immune systems that defend against invading microbes, including fungal pathogens. Many highly specialized cells of the immune system share the ability to store antimicrobial compounds in membrane bound organelles that can be immediately deployed to eradicate or inhibit growth of invading pathogens. These membrane-bound organelles consist of secretory vesicles or granules, which move to the surface of the cell, where they fuse with the plasma membrane to release their contents in the process of degranulation. Lymphocytes, macrophages, neutrophils, mast cells, eosinophils, and basophils all degranulate in fungal host defence. While anti-microbial secretory vesicles are shared among different immune cell types, information about each cell type has emerged independently leading to an uncoordinated and confusing classification of granules and incomplete description of the mechanism by which they are deployed. While there are important differences, there are many similarities in granule morphology, granule content, stimulus for degranulation, granule trafficking, and release of granules against fungal pathogens.
  • 864
  • 30 Jun 2021
Topic Review
Mast Cells and Vitamin D Status
The immune system is made up by an extremely composite group of cells, whose regulated and harmonious activity is fundamental to maintain health. The mast cells are an essential effector of inflammatory response which is characterized by a massive release of mediators accumulated in cytoplasmic secretory granules. However, beyond the effects on immune response, mast cells can modify bone metabolism and are capable of intervening in the genesis of pathologies such as osteoporosis and osteopenia. Vitamin D is recognized to induce changes in bone metabolism, but it is also able to influence immune response, suppressing mast cell activation and IgE synthesis from B cells and increasing the number of dendritic cells and IL-10-generating regulatory T cells. 
  • 864
  • 05 Jun 2023
Topic Review
The Link between Implant Failures and Titanium Allergy
Cases of probable titanium allergy included those with true titanium allergies and those with a potentially different cause. However, the differentiation of these cases is difficult. Since no definitive method has been established for diagnosing titanium allergy, a comprehensive diagnosis based on the clinical course and clinical examination using a patch test/lymphocyte transformation test (LTT)/memory lymphocyte immunostimulation assay (MELISA) is necessary. Implant treatment should be performed with caution in patients with any preoperative allergies.
  • 864
  • 20 Nov 2023
Topic Review
Vaccines in Ovarian Cancer
Ovarian cancer remains the deadliest of all gynecologic malignancies. Our expanding knowledge of ovarian cancer immunology has allowed the development of therapies that generate systemic anti-tumor immune responses. Current immunotherapeutic strategies include immune checkpoint blockade, cellular therapies, and cancer vaccines. Vaccine-based therapies are designed to induce both adaptive and innate immune responses directed against ovarian cancer associated antigens. Tumor-specific effector cells, in particular cytotoxic T cells, are activated to recognize and eliminate ovarian cancer cells. Vaccines for ovarian cancer have been studied in various clinical trials over the last three decades. Despite evidence of vaccine-induced humoral and cellular immune responses, the majority of vaccines have not shown significant anti-tumor efficacy. Recently, improved vaccine development using dendritic cells or synthetic platforms for antigen presentation have shown promising clinical benefits in patients with ovarian cancer. 
  • 863
  • 06 Aug 2021
Topic Review
New Frontier of Targeted Immunotherapy in Multiple Myeloma
The approval of monoclonal antibody (MoAb) against CD38 (daratumumab) and SLAMF7 (elotuzumab) in relapsed and refractory MM (RRMM) represents an important milestone in the development of targeted immunotherapy in MM. These MoAb-based agents significantly induce cytotoxicity of MM cells via multiple effector-dependent mechanisms and can further induce immunomodulation to repair a dysfunctional tumor immune microenvironment. 
  • 862
  • 27 Dec 2021
Topic Review
Regulatory T Cells in Type 1 Diabetes
Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is an autoimmune disease that typically presents in childhood and early adulthood that results in the destruction of insulin-producing pancreatic beta cells by T cells. One potential protective mechanism includes the suppression of immune responses by regulatory CD4 T cells (Tregs) that recognize self-peptides from islets presented by human leukocyte antigen (HLA) class II molecules.
  • 862
  • 25 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Interleukin-33 in Gastrointestinal Tract Cancers
Accumulating evidence suggests that Interleukin-33 (IL-33), a member of the IL-1 family, has crucial roles in tissue homeostasis and repair, type 2 immunity, inflammation, and viral infection. IL-33 is a novel contributing factor in tumorigenesis and plays a critical role in regulating angiogenesis and cancer progression in a variety of human cancers. The partially unraveled role of IL-33/ST2 signaling in gastrointestinal tract cancers is being investigated through the analysis of patients’ samples and by studies in murine and rat models. 
  • 862
  • 09 Jun 2023
Topic Review
Dendritic Cell-Based Cancer Immunotherapy
Cancer immunotherapy has now attracted much attention because of the recent success of immune checkpoint inhibitors. However, they are only beneficial in a limited fraction of patients most probably due to lack of sufficient CD8+ cytotoxic T-lymphocytes against tumor antigens in the host. In this regard, dendritic cells are useful tools to induce host immune responses against exogenous antigens. In particular, recently characterized cross-presenting dendritic cells are capable of inducing CD8+ cytotoxic T-lymphocytes against exogenous antigens such as tumor antigens and uniquely express the chemokine receptor XCR1. 
  • 861
  • 29 Jul 2021
Topic Review
Practical Considerations for Next-Generation Adjuvant Development and Translation
Throughout the last two decades, there has been increasing focus on the discovery and translation of new immune-stimulating agents. These compounds are often collectively referred to as adjuvants due to their precedent of use in vaccine development. There has been an expansion in the application of adjuvants in oncology and other areas as the understanding and definition of adjuvants continue to grow. Adjuvants stimulate key cell types in the innate immune system and can influence the scale and class of immune response directed towards a given antigen or antigens.
  • 860
  • 07 Jul 2023
Topic Review
Mechanisms of Immunotoxicity
The immune system orchestrates the body’s main defense against invading biologic agents including but not limited to bacteria, viruses, chemicals, and foreign tissues. Lymphocytes, neutrophils, macrophages, eosinophils, and basophils are the main players. These cells are produced at an increased rate during childhood, where such a blood draw in a child would reveal an average number of 3000/mm3 compared to 4500–11,000/mm3 in adults, and the development of the human immune system begins in the fetal period and reaches its maximum capacity around puberty.
  • 859
  • 04 Aug 2021
Topic Review
Immunotherapy of Glioblastoma
Glioblastoma is the most common brain malignant tumor in the adult population, and immuno-therapy is playing an increasingly central role in the treatment of many cancers. Nevertheless, the search for effective immunotherapeutic approaches for glioblastoma patients continues. The goal of immunotherapy is to promote tumor eradication, boost the patient’s innate and adaptive im-mune responses, and overcome tumor immune resistance. A range of new, promising immuno-therapeutic strategies has been applied for glioblastoma, including vaccines, oncolytic viruses, immune checkpoint inhibitors, and adoptive cell transfer. However, the main challenges of im-munotherapy for glioblastoma are the intracranial location and heterogeneity of the tumor as well as the unique, immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment.
  • 856
  • 05 Feb 2021
Topic Review
Glucocorticoid Receptor Activity
Glucocorticoids (GCs) represent a well-known class of lipophilic steroid hormones biosynthesised, with a circadian rhythm, by the adrenal glands in humans and by the inter-renal tissue in teleost fish (e.g., zebrafish).
  • 856
  • 23 Dec 2021
Topic Review
Immunomodulatory Activity of Antimicrobial Peptides
Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) in humans are represented by three main families: defensins, cathelicidins, histatins. Defensins, depending on the type of disulfide bond arrangement, are divided into alpha- and beta-defensins. Alpha- and beta-defensins are constitutively produced by neutrophils, lymphocytes, and epithelial cells of the skin and mucous membranes.
  • 856
  • 18 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Mass Spectrometry-Based Proteomics
Omics technologies provide the tools required to investigate DNA, RNA, proteins, and other molecular determinants. These technologies include genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics. However, proteomics is one of the main approaches to studying allergic disorders’ pathophysiology. Proteins are used to indicate normal biological processes, pathogenic processes, or pharmacologic responses to a therapeutic intervention. Proteomics studies the complete set of proteins present in a live organism at a specific time or condition, including expression, structure, functions, interactions, and modifications, which are crucial for early disease diagnosis, prognosis, and monitoring of disease development.
  • 851
  • 26 May 2022
Topic Review
HSP70-Mediated NLRP3 Inflammasome Suppression
Acute kidney injury (AKI) is the sudden loss of renal function, usually due to ischemia, nephrotoxic agents, or urinary tract obstructions. Although AKI is a relatively common condition, especially in hospitalized and chronically ill patients, treatments remain largely supportive, despite mortality associated with this condition being as high as 20%. Hence, there is growing interest in developing regenerative therapies for AKI that can repair renal injury as well as prevent its progression to chronic kidney disease. AKI is associated with both systemic and intrarenal inflammation, which is believed to be a key component underlying its pathophysiology. Although inflammation in the acute phase can facilitate tissue repair following injury, disruption of this process can lead to persistent inflammation, causing tissue damage and fibrosis. Many molecular mediators of inflammation have been identified in AKI, which include the NLRP3 inflammasome, toll-like receptors (TLRs), and various secreted cytokines that promote neutrophil- and monocyte-mediated inflammatory responses. Indeed, blockade of innate immune receptors seems to confer protection against AKI in several preclinical studies.   In a recent study conducted by Ullah et al., the authors demonstrated the effect of combination therapy with pulsed focused ultrasound (pFUS) and mesenchymal stem cell derived extracellular vesicles (MSC-derived EVs) in a mouse model of cisplatin-induced AKI.  Here we evaluated their ability to suppress AKI-related inflammation by downregulation of HSP70, which in turn reduced the formation of the NLRP3 inflammasome, resulting in the attenuation of the pro-inflammatory environment characteristic of AKI. The authors validated this effect using in vitro knockdown studies which also suggested that HSP70 is a positive regulator of the NLRP3 inflammasome.  
  • 847
  • 19 Jun 2020
Topic Review
Respiratory Viral Infection and Epithelial Immunity in Asthma
Viral respiratory tract infections are associated with asthma development and exacerbation in children and adults. In the course of immune responses to viruses, airway epithelial cells are the initial platform of innate immunity against viral invasion. Patients with severe asthma are more vulnerable than those with mild to moderate asthma to viral infections.
  • 847
  • 10 Oct 2022
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