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Topic Review
Tumor Necrosis Factor and Lymphotoxin
The tumor necrosis factor (TNF) ligand family includes 19 ligands, which each contain a C-terminal TNF homology domain (THD). Each ligand binds to one or multiple TNF receptors (TNFR), containing extracellular cysteine-rich domains (CRD) for ligand binding. Tumor necrosis factor (TNF or TNF-α) and lymphotoxin (LT) are the first two cytokines that have been characterized as TNF superfamily members. They have a homologous amino acid sequence and were both discovered based on their anti-tumor effects. Moreover, both ligands bind to TNF receptor type 1 and type 2 (TNFR1 and TNFR2) and mediate similar cell signaling transduction.
  • 757
  • 19 Jan 2022
Topic Review
Galectin-3
Galectin-3 is a member of the galectins family of carbohydrate-binding proteins with specificity for N-acetyllactosamine (LacNAc)-containing glycoproteins, and the only known one with a single carbohydrate recognition domain and a unique N-terminus.
  • 756
  • 16 Mar 2021
Topic Review
Cyclo- and Polyphosphazenes for Biomedical Applications
Cyclic and polyphosphazenes are extremely interesting and versatile substrates characterized by the presence of -P=N- repeating units. The chlorine atoms on the P atoms in the starting materials can be easily substituted with a variety of organic substituents, thus giving rise to a huge number of new materials for industrial applications. A wide variety of new phosphazene systems, either trimeric or polymeric, have been developed as biomaterials in view of different applications. The materials to apply in biomedical applications should be biocompatible.
  • 756
  • 09 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Heterocyclic PPAR Ligands for Potential Therapeutic Applications
The family of nuclear peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARα, PPARβ/δ, and PPARγ) is a set of ligand-activated transcription factors that regulate different functions in the body. Whereas activation of PPARα is known to reduce the levels of circulating triglycerides and regulate energy homeostasis, the activation of PPARγ brings about insulin sensitization and increases the metabolism of glucose. On the other hand, PPARβ when activated increases the metabolism of fatty acids. Further, these PPARs have been claimed to be utilized in various metabolic, neurological, and inflammatory diseases, neurodegenerative disorders, fertility or reproduction, pain, and obesity.
  • 756
  • 08 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Animal Venom for Medical Usage
Pharmacopuncture of bee, snake, and toad venoms are being used in Koreanmedicine institutions. Clinical evidence for the efficacy of these animal venoms has been summarizedthrough a literature search. This research contributes to the development of animal venom-basedmedicines.
  • 753
  • 01 Mar 2021
Topic Review
Gastric Cancer
Gastric cancer is the fifth most common cancer worldwide, and it is responsible for 7.7% of all cancer deaths. Despite advances in the field of oncology, where radiotherapy, neo and adjuvant chemotherapy may improve the outcome, the only treatment with curative intent is represented by surgery as part of a multimodal therapy. Two concepts may be adopted in appropriate cases, neoadjuvant treatment before gastrectomy (G) or primary surgical resection followed by chemotherapy.
  • 751
  • 25 Jun 2021
Topic Review
Applications of Cubosomes on Cancers
Cancer is a group of disorders characterized by aberrant gene function and alterations in gene expression patterns. In 2020, it was anticipated that 19 million new cancer cases would be diagnosed globally, with around 10 million cancer deaths. Late diagnosis and interventions are the leading causes of cancer-related mortality. In addition, the absence of comprehensive cancer therapy adds to the burden. Many lyotropic non-lamellar liquid-crystalline-nanoparticle-mediated formulations have been developed in the last few decades, with promising results in drug delivery, therapeutics, and diagnostics. Cubosomes are nano-structured liquid-crystalline particles made of specific amphiphilic lipids in particular proportions. Their ability to encapsulate lipophilic, hydrophilic, and amphiphilic molecules within their structure makes them one of a kind. They are biocompatible, versatile drug carriers that can deliver medications through various routes of administration. Many preclinical studies on the use of cubosomes in cancer treatment and theranostic applications have been conducted. However, before cubosomes may be employed in clinical practice, significant technical advances must be accomplished. 
  • 751
  • 24 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Plant-Based Antidiabetic Agents
Diabetes mellitus is a prevalent metabolic syndrome that is associated with high blood glucose levels. The number of diabetic patients is increasing every year and the total number of cases is expected to reach more than 600 million worldwide by 2045. Modern antidiabetic drugs alleviate hyperglycaemia and complications that are caused by high blood glucose levels. Due to the side effects of these drugs, plant extracts and bioactive compounds with antidiabetic properties have been gaining attention as alternative treatments for diabetes. Natural products are biocompatible, cheaper and expected to cause fewer side effects than the current antidiabetic drugs. Various nanocarrier systems are discussed, such as liposomes, niosomes, polymeric nanoparticles, nanoemulsions, solid lipid nanoparticles and metallic nanoparticles. These systems have been applied to overcome the limitations of the current drugs and simultaneously improve the efficacy of plant-based antidiabetic drugs. The main challenges in the formulation of plant-based nanocarriers are the loading capacity of the plant extracts and the stability of the carriers. Lipid nanocarriers and the amphipathic properties of phospholipids and liposomes that encapsulate hydrophilic, hydrophobic and amphiphilic drugs is also described. A special emphasis is placed on metallic nanoparticles, with their advantages and associated complications being reported to highlight their effectiveness for treating hyperglycaemia.
  • 751
  • 02 Aug 2022
Topic Review
Oral Bioavailability and Regulatory Aspects
Oral bioavailability refers to the extent a substance or drug becomes completely available to systemic circulation or to its intended biological destination(s) via the oral route. High oral bioavailability reduces the amount of a drug necessary to achieve a desired pharmacological effect, therefore reducing the risk of side-effects and toxicity. Low oral bioavailability results in low efficacy and is a major reason for drug candidates failing to reach the market. Hence, oral bioavailability is one of the most important properties in drug design and development.
  • 749
  • 11 Oct 2021
Topic Review
Beta-Blockers
Beta-blockers are a class of drugs with important benefits in cardiovascular pathology. The neuropsychiatric and cognitive effects of beta-blockers were proven many years ago.
  • 748
  • 03 Mar 2021
Topic Review
Polymyxins
Polymyxins are non-ribosomal, cyclic oligopeptide antimicrobials, produced by the Gram-positive, spore-forming rod Bacillus aerosporus that were identified in 1946 from the soil of market gardens in England.
  • 748
  • 11 Jun 2021
Topic Review
Neuroprotective Agents from Syzygium from Alzheimer’s Perspective
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most prevalent type of dementia worldwide, constituting 70–80% of cases, primarily among the elderly. This irreversible neurodegenerative disorder progressively impairs memory and other cognitive functions. The molecular mechanisms of Syzygium species in neuroprotection include the inhibition of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) to correct cholinergic transmission, suppression of pro-inflammatory mediators, oxidative stress markers, reactive immediate species (RIS) production, enhancement of antioxidant enzymes, the restoration of brain ions homeostasis, the inhibition of microglial invasion, the modulation of ß-cell insulin release, the enhancement of lipid accumulation, glucose uptake, and adiponectin secretion via the activation of the insulin signaling pathway. Additional efforts are warranted to explore less studied species, including the Australian and Western Syzygium species. The effectiveness of the Syzygium genus in neuroprotective responses is markedly established, but further compound isolation, in silico, and clinical studies are demanded. 
  • 748
  • 14 Jun 2022
Topic Review
Intravitreal Delivery Systems for Sustained Drug Release
Slow-release delivery systems are needed to ensure long-term sustained treatments for retinal diseases such as age-related macular degeneration and diabetic retinopathy, which are currently treated with anti-angiogenic agents that require frequent intraocular injections. These can cause serious co-morbidities for the patients and are far from providing the adequate drug/protein release rates and required pharmacokinetics to sustain prolonged efficacy.
  • 747
  • 17 May 2023
Topic Review
Inositol 1,4,5-Trisphosphate Receptors
Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptors (ITPRs) are intracellular calcium release channels located on the endoplasmic reticulum of virtually every cell.
  • 746
  • 30 Oct 2020
Topic Review
Type 2 Diabetes and P450
 The most frequent form of diabetes is type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) which is often part of a metabolic syndrome (hyperglycaemia, hypertension, hypercholesterolemia, abdominal obesity) that usually requires the use of several medications from different drug classes to bring each of these conditions under control. T2DM is associated with an increase in inflammatory markers such as interleukin-6 (IL-6) and the tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α). Higher levels of IL-6 and TNF-α are associated with a downregulation of several drug metabolizing enzymes, especially the cytochrome P450 (P450) isoforms CYP3As and CYP2C19. A decrease in these P450 isoenzymes may lead to unexpected rise in plasma levels of substrates of these enzymes. It could also give rise to a mismatch between the genotypes determined for these enzymes, the predicted phenotypes based on these genotypes and the phenotypes observed clinically. This phenomenon is described as phenoconversion. Phenoconversion typically results from either a disease (such as T2DM) or concomitant administration of medications inducing or inhibiting (including competitive or non-competitive inhibition) a P450 isoenzyme used by other substrates for their elimination. Phenoconversion could have a significant impact on drug effects and genotypic-focused clinical outcomes.
  • 746
  • 11 Oct 2021
Topic Review
Nanotechnology-Based Drug Delivery System for Phytochemical Compounds
According to the literature, 70% of the active ingredients obtained from plants are hydrophobic. New technology has been used as a strategy to increase the bioavailability/bioactivity of phytochemical compounds. In order to develop new nanotechnology-based therapies, the ability to design suitable formulations for drug delivery is of the utmost importance. Phytochemical delivery is essential for effective disease prevention and treatment. These delivery systems include lipid-based delivery systems and polymer-based delivery systems, which have the potential to increase the bioactivity of phytochemical compounds.
  • 746
  • 07 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Food Polyphenols and Type II Diabetes Mellitus
Type II diabetes mellitus and its related complications are growing public health problems. Many natural products present in our diet, including polyphenols, can be used in treating and managing type II diabetes mellitus and different diseases, owing to their numerous biological properties. Anthocyanins, flavonols, stilbenes, curcuminoids, hesperidin, hesperetin, naringenin, and phenolic acids are common polyphenols found in blueberries, chokeberries, sea-buckthorn, mulberries, turmeric, citrus fruits, and cereals. These compounds exhibit antidiabetic effects through different pathways.
  • 746
  • 22 May 2023
Topic Review
Antibiotic Resistance in Bronchiectasis
Non-cystic fibrosis bronchiectasis is a chronic disorder in which immune system dysregulation and impaired airway clearance cause mucus accumulation and consequent increased susceptibility to lung infections. The presence of pathogens in the lower respiratory tract causes a vicious circle resulting in impaired mucociliary function, bronchial inflammation, and progressive lung injury. In current guidelines, antibiotic therapy has a key role in bronchiectasis management to treat acute exacerbations and chronic infection and to eradicate bacterial colonization. 
  • 743
  • 17 May 2021
Topic Review
The Antioxidant Activity of Mistletoes
In addition to the European mistletoe, Viscum album, which is the most known and utilized one, there are several species commonly known as mistletoe. They are spread in various regions of the planet and are all characterized by hemiparasitism and epiphytic behaviour. The published studies evidence other similarities, including the sharing of important biological properties, with the common presence of antioxidant effects. Mistletoe is an example of the importance of the phytochemical and pharmacological research to update knowledge and utilization of medicinal plants. There are tendencies to limit to use of products derived from natural products, based on prejudices or wrong interpretation. The correct utilization of scientific results is necessary.
  • 743
  • 27 Jul 2023
Topic Review
MUTYH Gene
The MUTYH gene is located on the short arm of chromosome 1 (1p34.1) and encodes instructions for the MYH glycosylase enzyme.
  • 742
  • 02 Feb 2021
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