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Topic Review
Hepatitis C Virus Epitope Immunodominance
Despite the advent of effective, curative treatments for hepatitis C virus (HCV), a preventative vaccine remains essential for the global elimination of HCV. It is now clear that the induction of broadly neutralising antibodies (bNAbs) is essential for the rational design of such a vaccine.
  • 729
  • 16 Jun 2021
Topic Review
SARS-CoV-2, HIV and Mycobacterium tuberculosis
By the middle of 2021, we are still immersed in the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). The concurrence of this new pandemic in regions where human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and tuberculosis (TB) infections possess the same epidemiological consideration, has arisen concerns about the prognosis, clinical management, symptomatology, and treatment of patients with triple infection. At the same time, healthcare services previously devoted to diagnosis and treatment of TB and HIV are being jeopardized by the urgent need of resources and attention for COVID-19 patients. 
  • 722
  • 27 May 2021
Topic Review
The Approache to Face Human Cytomegalovirus Infection
Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is a herpesvirus capable of establishing a lifelong persistence in the host through a chronic state of infection and remains an essential global concern due to its distinct life cycle, mutations, and latency. It represents a life-threatening pathogen for immunocompromised patients, such as solid organ transplanted patients, HIV-positive individuals, and hematopoietic stem cell recipients. Multiple antiviral approaches are available and administered in order to prevent or manage viral infections in the early stages.
  • 722
  • 09 Oct 2023
Topic Review
Neurocognitive Symptoms Due to Respiratory infections
Respiratory infections are among the major public health burdens, especially during winter. Along these lines, the human respiratory syncytial virus (hRSV) is the principal viral agent causing acute lower respiratory tract infections leading to hospitalization. The pulmonary manifestations due to hRSV infection are bronchiolitis and pneumonia, where the population most affected are infants and the elderly. However, recent evidence suggests that hRSV infection can impact the mother and fetus during pregnancy. Studies have indicated that hRSV can infect different cell types from the placenta and even cross the placenta barrier and infect the fetus. In addition, it is known that infections during the gestational period can lead to severe consequences for the development of the fetus due not only to a direct viral infection but also because of maternal immune activation (MIA). Furthermore, it has been described that the development of the central nervous system (CNS) of the fetus can be affected by the inflammatory environment of the uterus caused by viral infections. Increasing evidence supports the notion that hRSV could invade the CNS and infect nervous cells, such as microglia, neurons, and astrocytes, promoting neuroinflammation. Moreover, it has been described that the hRSV infection can provoke neurological manifestations, including cognitive impairment and behavioral alterations.
  • 718
  • 18 Jan 2022
Topic Review
Immune Checkpoints in Prostate Cancer
Emerging research demonstrates that co-inhibitory immune checkpoints (ICs) remain the most promising immunotherapy targets in various malignancies. Nonetheless, ICIs have offered insignificant clinical benefits in the treatment of advanced prostate cancer (PCa) especially when they are used as monotherapies. Current existing PCa treatment initially offers an improved clinical outcome and overall survival (OS), however, after a while the treatment becomes resistant leading to aggressive and uncontrolled disease associated with increased mortality and morbidity. 
  • 717
  • 30 Jun 2021
Topic Review
Virus-Based Immuno-Oncology Models
Oncolytic virus (OV) presents a natural or genetically engineered tropism for tumor cells that can be further enhanced to increase both innate and adaptive immune responses. Viruses and other pathogens naturally stimulate stronger immune responses than over-expressed self-antigens normally encountered in solid tumors. 
  • 710
  • 28 Jun 2022
Topic Review
Hepatitis: Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prevention
Hepatitis is a pressing global health concern, encompassing a range of viral infections that affect the liver, with symptoms varying from mild to severe, and sometimes fatal outcomes. This research delves into the intricate world of hepatitis, exploring its diverse types, causes, symptoms, diagnostic methods, treatment options, and prevention strategies. Hepatitis A, B, C, D, and E are dissected, shedding light on their unique characteristics and modes of transmission. The causes and risk factors, including viral transmission, unsafe practices, and poor sanitation, are highlighted. Symptoms, from fatigue to jaundice, are unveiled, underscoring the variability of hepatitis presentations. Diagnosis involves blood tests, liver function assessments, imaging, and, in some cases, liver biopsies. Treatment options range from supportive care for self-limiting infections to antiviral therapies and potential liver transplants for advanced cases. Prevention is key, with vaccination, safe practices, and screening playing pivotal roles. As we navigate this expansive landscape, understanding hepatitis becomes paramount for individuals and healthcare systems worldwide, offering hope in the battle against this global health challenge.
  • 710
  • 08 Oct 2023
Topic Review
Long Noncoding RNAs in Human Papillomavirus-associated Pathogenesis
Papillomaviruses are a large family of non-enveloped viruses with ~8000 base pair, circular, double stranded DNA genomes. They have been detected in almost all vertebrates, are highly host-specific and preferentially infect squamous epithelial tissues. Infections with high-risk human papillomaviruses cause ~5% of all human cancers. E6 and E7 are the only viral genes that are consistently expressed in cancers, and they are necessary for tumor initiation, progression, and maintenance. E6 and E7 encode small proteins that lack intrinsic enzymatic activities and they function by binding to cellular regulatory molecules, thereby subverting normal cellular homeostasis. Much effort has focused on identifying protein targets of the E6 and E7 proteins, but it has been estimated that ~98% of the human transcriptome does not encode proteins. Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) are defined as transcripts of >200 nucleotides with no or limited coding potential of <100 amino acids. There is a growing interest in studying noncoding RNAs as biochemical targets and biological mediators of human papillomavirus (HPV) E6/E7 oncogenic activities.
  • 709
  • 03 Mar 2022
Topic Review
COVID-19 Patients and BNT162b2 Doses
The evaluation of the neutralizing capacity of anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies is important because they represent real protective immunity. In this study we aimed to measure and compare the neutralizing antibodies (NAbs) in COVID-19 patients and in vaccinated individuals. One-hundred and fifty long-term samples from 75 COVID-19 patients were analyzed with a surrogate virus neutralization test (sVNT) and compared to six different SARS-CoV-2 serology assays. The agreement between the sVNT and pseudovirus neutralization test (pVNT) results was found to be excellent (i.e., 97.2%). The NAb response was also assessed in 90 individuals who had received the complete dose regimen of BNT162b2. In COVID-19 patients, a stronger response was observed in moderate–severe versus mild patients (p-value = 0.0006). A slow decay in NAbs was noted in samples for up to 300 days after diagnosis, especially in moderate–severe patients (r = −0.35, p-value = 0.03). In the vaccinated population, 83.3% of COVID-19-naive individuals had positive NAbs 14 days after the first dose and all were positive 7 days after the second dose, i.e., at day 28. In previously infected individuals, all were already positive for NAbs at day 14. At each time point, a stronger response was observed for previously infected individuals (p-value < 0.05). The NAb response remained stable for up to 56 days in all participants. Vaccinated participants had significantly higher NAb titers compared to COVID patients. In previously infected vaccine recipients, one dose might be sufficient to generate sufficient neutralizing antibodies.COVID-19; SARS-CoV-2; neutralizing antibodies; humoral response; long-term kinetics
  • 708
  • 23 Jul 2021
Topic Review
Enteric Viruses in Process Water
Process water has been defined as water resulting from washing raw materials, rinsing water, or water used for cooling or transport, which usually accumulates organic matter, including micro-organisms. Process water in the fruit and vegetable sector is highly variable in terms of quality parameters, such as dissolved solids, chemical oxygen demand, and microbiological quality. This fact makes it a challenge to implement a standard treatment fit for all purposes. The occurrence of potentially infectious enteric viruses in PW used by the fresh produce industry is likely possible, and thus, it must be closely examined. Several factors must be considered to address this issue: (i) Relatively low levels of enteric viruses introduced will be randomly distributed into large volumes of water and may not be detectable using protocols indicating small volume collection; (ii) sampling points in commercial facilities are critical for pathogen detection; (iii) molecular-based methods, currently used for enteric virus detection in food cannot discriminate between inactivated and potentially infectious enteric viruses; (iv) organic fresh produce market, limiting the use of sanitizers, has tremendously increased in the last years and the food safety perception of consumers must be assured. 
  • 705
  • 24 Aug 2021
Topic Review
Innate Immune Response against Hepatitis C Virus
The hepatitis C virus (HCV) is a member of the Hepacivirus genus, Flaviviridae family. HCV is a virus with an envelope and a positive-sense single-stranded RNA genome. The HCV genome is translated into a large polyprotein that is processed in three structural (core, E1, E2) and seven non-structural (NS) mature proteins (p7, NS2, NS3, NS4A, NS4B, NS5A, and NS5B). A vaccine that only reduces viral titers could be of great help to control the hepatitis C epidemic
  • 704
  • 08 Aug 2022
Topic Review
Variola Virus, Variolation, Cowpox Virus, and Vaccination
Cowpox viruses (CPXVs) exhibit the broadest known host range among the Poxviridae family and have caused lethal outbreaks in various zoo animals and pets across 12 Eurasian countries, as well as an increasing number of human cases. Modern CPXV isolates can not be equated to historical isolates of "cow-pox", which have been instrumental to the eradication of smallpox, which is caused by the closely related variola virus.
  • 704
  • 22 Feb 2023
Topic Review
Extrahepatic Replication of Hepatitis E Virus (HEV)
Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is an emerging viral disease known to cause acute viral hepatitis globally. Various genotypes of HEV have been identified that produce genotype specific lesions depending on the HEV targeted population. Extrahepatic existence of HEV was related to clinical manifestations via different case reports, case–control studies, and prospective studies. Knowledge about HEV-related extrahepatic diseases is very important for clinicians.
  • 696
  • 23 Mar 2023
Topic Review
Functions of Circular RNA
Circular RNAs (circRNAs) represent single-stranded RNA species that contain covalently closed 3′ and 5′ ends that provide them more stability than linear RNA, which has free ends. Emerging evidence indicates that circRNAs perform essential functions in many DNA viruses, including coronaviruses, Epstein–Barr viruses, cytomegalovirus, and Kaposi sarcoma viruses. Recent studies have confirmed that circRNAs are present in viruses, including DNA and RNA viruses, and play various important functions such as evading host immune response, disease pathogenesis, protein translation, miRNA sponges, regulating cell proliferation, and virus replication. Studies have confirmed that circRNAs can be biological signatures or pathological markers for autoimmune diseases, neurological diseases, and cancers. 
  • 693
  • 13 Jul 2023
Topic Review
Zika Virus in Brief
The Zika virus, a member of the Flaviviridae family, stands as a testament to the ever-evolving landscape of global health concerns in the early 21st century. In its nascent years, this virus inhabited the shadows of medical obscurity, inflicting sporadic, seemingly inconsequential bouts of mild illness primarily within the continents of Africa and Asia. Its existence remained relegated to the annals of medical journals and local health records, with little resonance in the broader global health discourse. However, this viral entity was destined for a meteoric rise to infamy, an emergence that would reverberate throughout the international community. The watershed moment transpired in 2015 when the Zika virus, once a modest player on the infectious disease stage, seized the spotlight by inciting a large-scale epidemic that unfurled across the vast expanse of the Americas. This sudden and dramatic expansion of the virus's reach thrust it into the forefront of global public health concerns, sending shockwaves through scientific, medical, and governmental circles. As we embark on this comprehensive review, it is essential to unravel the multifaceted tapestry of the Zika virus's journey. Beyond its mere identification and characterization, this exploration will delve deep into its enigmatic origins, intricate modes of transmission, the myriad impacts it has wrought upon human health, and the concerted efforts undertaken globally to wrest control from its insidious grip. This virus, once consigned to relative obscurity, has compelled the world's attention, ushering in a new era of infectious disease management and prompting a collective response from the global community. The story of the Zika virus serves as both a cautionary tale and a testament to the resilience and adaptability of pathogens in the face of a changing world.
  • 692
  • 28 Sep 2023
Topic Review
ATF4 Role during HIV-1 Replication
Activating transcription factor 4 (ATF4) is a transcription factor known to regulate genes associated with the sensing of cellular stress such as amino acid deprival, protein misfolding, growth arrest, and cell death. Despite its key role at the crossroads of immune and stress responses, the precise impact of ATF4 during viral infections remains unclear. Thus, ATF4 has a dual role in promoting cell survival or cell death, but also in limiting infection or participating in viral replication.
  • 690
  • 18 Mar 2024
Topic Review
Unique Populations of Hepatitis C
Direct-acting antivirals (DAA), including RNA-dependent polymerase inhibitors (anti-NS5B), protease inhibitors (PI, anti-NS3/4A) and anti-NS5A inhibitors, have radically changed the landscape of patients with chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection. The availability of DAA together with the improvement of worldwide access to treatment could potentially lead to HCV elimination by 2030 as endorsed by the World Health Organization (WHO). However, some patients have historically been part of the so-called unique or special populations. This term generally refers to those who are difficult-to-treat due to unreached sustained virological response (SVR), potential treatment side effects or drug interactions or co-morbidities.
  • 679
  • 21 Jun 2021
Topic Review
COVID-19 and Global Monitoring&Surveillance
The spectrum of emerging new diseases as well as re-emerging old diseases is broadening as infectious agents evolve, adapt, and spread at enormous speeds in response to changing ecosystems. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is a recent phenomenon and may take a while to understand its transmission routes from less travelled territories, ranging from fomite exposure routes to wastewater transmission. The critical challenge is how to negotiate with such catastrophic pandemics in high-income countries (HICs ~20% of the global population) and low-and middle-income countries (LMICs ~ 80% of the global population) with a total global population size of approximately eight billion, where practical mass testing and tracing is only a remote possibility, particularly in low-and middle-income countries (LMICs). Keeping in mind the population distribution disparities of high-income countries (HICs) and LMICs and urbanisation trends over recent years, traditional wastewater-based surveillance such as that used to combat polio may help in addressing this challenge. The COVID-19 era differs from any previous pandemics or global health challenges in the sense that there is a great deal of curiosity within the global community to find out everything about this virus, ranging from diagnostics, potential vaccines/therapeutics, and possible routes of transmission. In this regard, the fact that the gut is the common niche for both poliovirus and SARS-CoV-2, and due to the shedding of the virus through faecal material into sewerage systems, the need for long-term wastewater surveillance and developing early warning systems for better preparedness at local and global levels is increasingly apparent. 
  • 677
  • 23 Mar 2021
Topic Review
Environmental Detection of Equine Herpesviruses
Equine herpesviruses (EHV) are a major health concern for domestic and wild equids and represent one of the most economically important disease agents of horses. Most known EHVs are transmitted directly between individuals as a result of direct exposure to exudates and aerosols. However, accumulating evidence suggests that environmental transmission may play a role including air, water, and fomites.
  • 677
  • 24 Jun 2021
Topic Review
RIG-I-Like Receptors
Kaposi’s sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) and the Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) are double-stranded DNA oncogenic gammaherpesviruses. These two viruses are associated with multiple human malignancies, including both B and T cell lymphomas, as well as epithelial- and endothelial-derived cancers. KSHV and EBV establish a life-long latent infection in the human host with intermittent periods of lytic replication. Infection with these viruses induce the expression of both viral and host RNA transcripts and activates several RNA sensors including RIG-I-like receptors (RLRs).
  • 676
  • 03 Aug 2023
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