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Topic Review
HBV Infection in Pregnancy
Immunological changes during pregnancy such as suppression of Th1 response and induction of Th2 immunity lead to an impaired immune reaction to HBV and stimulate viral activity along with the reduction of CD8 T cells to escape immune detection. The impact of pregnancy on the natural course of chronic HBV infection seems to be minimal, while pregnancy can increase morbidity and mortality in the case of advanced HBV hepatitis or cirrhosis. Importantly, hepatitis flare or alanine aminotransferase (ALT) flare can occur during pregnancy and is more common during the postpartum period due to the interaction between HBV and the immune response. Interestingly, the impact of HBV infection on adverse pregnancy outcomes is more serious than ever thought. 
  • 748
  • 26 Jul 2021
Topic Review
Neurocognitive Symptoms Due to Respiratory infections
Respiratory infections are among the major public health burdens, especially during winter. Along these lines, the human respiratory syncytial virus (hRSV) is the principal viral agent causing acute lower respiratory tract infections leading to hospitalization. The pulmonary manifestations due to hRSV infection are bronchiolitis and pneumonia, where the population most affected are infants and the elderly. However, recent evidence suggests that hRSV infection can impact the mother and fetus during pregnancy. Studies have indicated that hRSV can infect different cell types from the placenta and even cross the placenta barrier and infect the fetus. In addition, it is known that infections during the gestational period can lead to severe consequences for the development of the fetus due not only to a direct viral infection but also because of maternal immune activation (MIA). Furthermore, it has been described that the development of the central nervous system (CNS) of the fetus can be affected by the inflammatory environment of the uterus caused by viral infections. Increasing evidence supports the notion that hRSV could invade the CNS and infect nervous cells, such as microglia, neurons, and astrocytes, promoting neuroinflammation. Moreover, it has been described that the hRSV infection can provoke neurological manifestations, including cognitive impairment and behavioral alterations.
  • 741
  • 18 Jan 2022
Topic Review
Therapeutic Options against Chronic HBV
Currently, Chronic Hepatitis B (CHB) is controlled but not cured by approved antivirals. For instance, transcriptionally active HBV DNA in the nucleus is not directly targeted. Except for interferon-α (IFN-α) and pegylated IFN-α, all other licensed drugs are nucleoside (Lamivudine, Clevudine, Entecavir, Telbivudine) and nucleotide analogues (Adefovir dipivoxil, Tenofovir disoproxil fumarate, Tenofovir alafenamide). All these drugs are potent at reducing viral loads and normalizing alanine transaminase levels in CHB patients. However, long-term treatment with many of these drugs leads to the development of multiple drug resistance mutations. In addition, while a limited reduction in cccDNA is achieved, long-term nucleos(t)ide analogue treatment does not reduce hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) levels.
  • 740
  • 14 Jul 2021
Topic Review
COVID-19 Patients and BNT162b2 Doses
The evaluation of the neutralizing capacity of anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies is important because they represent real protective immunity. In this study we aimed to measure and compare the neutralizing antibodies (NAbs) in COVID-19 patients and in vaccinated individuals. One-hundred and fifty long-term samples from 75 COVID-19 patients were analyzed with a surrogate virus neutralization test (sVNT) and compared to six different SARS-CoV-2 serology assays. The agreement between the sVNT and pseudovirus neutralization test (pVNT) results was found to be excellent (i.e., 97.2%). The NAb response was also assessed in 90 individuals who had received the complete dose regimen of BNT162b2. In COVID-19 patients, a stronger response was observed in moderate–severe versus mild patients (p-value = 0.0006). A slow decay in NAbs was noted in samples for up to 300 days after diagnosis, especially in moderate–severe patients (r = −0.35, p-value = 0.03). In the vaccinated population, 83.3% of COVID-19-naive individuals had positive NAbs 14 days after the first dose and all were positive 7 days after the second dose, i.e., at day 28. In previously infected individuals, all were already positive for NAbs at day 14. At each time point, a stronger response was observed for previously infected individuals (p-value < 0.05). The NAb response remained stable for up to 56 days in all participants. Vaccinated participants had significantly higher NAb titers compared to COVID patients. In previously infected vaccine recipients, one dose might be sufficient to generate sufficient neutralizing antibodies.COVID-19; SARS-CoV-2; neutralizing antibodies; humoral response; long-term kinetics
  • 739
  • 23 Jul 2021
Topic Review
Virus-Based Immuno-Oncology Models
Oncolytic virus (OV) presents a natural or genetically engineered tropism for tumor cells that can be further enhanced to increase both innate and adaptive immune responses. Viruses and other pathogens naturally stimulate stronger immune responses than over-expressed self-antigens normally encountered in solid tumors. 
  • 739
  • 28 Jun 2022
Topic Review
BK Polyomavirus Nephropathy
BK polyomavirus nephropathy (BKVN) and allograft rejection are two closely-associated diseases on opposite ends of the immune scale in kidney transplant recipients. The principle of balancing the immune system remains the mainstay of therapeutic strategy.
  • 738
  • 31 Mar 2021
Topic Review
Hepatitis C Virus Epitope Immunodominance
Despite the advent of effective, curative treatments for hepatitis C virus (HCV), a preventative vaccine remains essential for the global elimination of HCV. It is now clear that the induction of broadly neutralising antibodies (bNAbs) is essential for the rational design of such a vaccine.
  • 736
  • 16 Jun 2021
Topic Review
The Approache to Face Human Cytomegalovirus Infection
Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is a herpesvirus capable of establishing a lifelong persistence in the host through a chronic state of infection and remains an essential global concern due to its distinct life cycle, mutations, and latency. It represents a life-threatening pathogen for immunocompromised patients, such as solid organ transplanted patients, HIV-positive individuals, and hematopoietic stem cell recipients. Multiple antiviral approaches are available and administered in order to prevent or manage viral infections in the early stages.
  • 727
  • 09 Oct 2023
Topic Review
Transcription Factors Involved in the Virus Stress Responses
Transcription factors, which possess DNA-binding domains, play a significant role in controlling the transcription regulation and developmental processes, as well as responses to environmental cues in plants.
  • 726
  • 22 May 2023
Topic Review
The Contemporary Patterns of Chronic Hepatitis D
The hepatitis D virus (HDV) is a small satellite virus, the smallest yet identified in the human population, that causes the most aggressive form of all viral hepatitis strains. There has been a negative trend towards an increase in the prevalence of chronic hepatitis D in Europe, especially among immigrant populations coming from regions endemic for the virus.
  • 724
  • 06 May 2023
Topic Review
Links between Human Papillomavirus, HSV, and Cervical Cancer
There is a significant body of research examining the role of human papillomavirus (HPV) in the pathogenesis of cervical cancer, with a particular emphasis on the oncogenic proteins E5, E6, and E7. What is less well explored, however, is the relationship between cervical cancer and herpes simplex virus (HSV). To date, studies examining the role of HSV in cervical cancer pathogenesis have yielded mixed results. Should this relationship be clarified, treating and preventing HSV could open another avenue with which to prevent cervical cancer. An overview of HSV and HPV infections and then delves into the possible links between HPV, HSV, and cervical cancer are discussed. It concludes with a summary of preventive measures against and recent treatment advances in cervical cancer.
  • 723
  • 28 Jul 2023
Topic Review
ATF4 Role during HIV-1 Replication
Activating transcription factor 4 (ATF4) is a transcription factor known to regulate genes associated with the sensing of cellular stress such as amino acid deprival, protein misfolding, growth arrest, and cell death. Despite its key role at the crossroads of immune and stress responses, the precise impact of ATF4 during viral infections remains unclear. Thus, ATF4 has a dual role in promoting cell survival or cell death, but also in limiting infection or participating in viral replication.
  • 723
  • 18 Mar 2024
Topic Review
Long Noncoding RNAs in Human Papillomavirus-associated Pathogenesis
Papillomaviruses are a large family of non-enveloped viruses with ~8000 base pair, circular, double stranded DNA genomes. They have been detected in almost all vertebrates, are highly host-specific and preferentially infect squamous epithelial tissues. Infections with high-risk human papillomaviruses cause ~5% of all human cancers. E6 and E7 are the only viral genes that are consistently expressed in cancers, and they are necessary for tumor initiation, progression, and maintenance. E6 and E7 encode small proteins that lack intrinsic enzymatic activities and they function by binding to cellular regulatory molecules, thereby subverting normal cellular homeostasis. Much effort has focused on identifying protein targets of the E6 and E7 proteins, but it has been estimated that ~98% of the human transcriptome does not encode proteins. Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) are defined as transcripts of >200 nucleotides with no or limited coding potential of <100 amino acids. There is a growing interest in studying noncoding RNAs as biochemical targets and biological mediators of human papillomavirus (HPV) E6/E7 oncogenic activities.
  • 718
  • 03 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Endogenous Retroviruses Expression Regulation Mechanisms
Human endogenous retroviruses (HERVs) are the result of retroviral infections acquired millions of years ago; nowadays, they compose around 8% of human DNA. Multiple mechanisms have been employed for endogenous retroviral deactivation, rendering replication and retrotransposition defective, while some of them have been co-opted to serve host evolutionary advantages. A pleiad of mechanisms retains the delicate balance of HERV expression in modern humans. Thus, epigenetic modifications, such as DNA and histone methylation, acetylation, deamination, chromatin remodeling, and even post-transcriptional control are recruited.
  • 717
  • 26 Feb 2024
Topic Review
Variola Virus, Variolation, Cowpox Virus, and Vaccination
Cowpox viruses (CPXVs) exhibit the broadest known host range among the Poxviridae family and have caused lethal outbreaks in various zoo animals and pets across 12 Eurasian countries, as well as an increasing number of human cases. Modern CPXV isolates can not be equated to historical isolates of "cow-pox", which have been instrumental to the eradication of smallpox, which is caused by the closely related variola virus.
  • 715
  • 22 Feb 2023
Topic Review
Hepatitis: Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prevention
Hepatitis is a pressing global health concern, encompassing a range of viral infections that affect the liver, with symptoms varying from mild to severe, and sometimes fatal outcomes. This research delves into the intricate world of hepatitis, exploring its diverse types, causes, symptoms, diagnostic methods, treatment options, and prevention strategies. Hepatitis A, B, C, D, and E are dissected, shedding light on their unique characteristics and modes of transmission. The causes and risk factors, including viral transmission, unsafe practices, and poor sanitation, are highlighted. Symptoms, from fatigue to jaundice, are unveiled, underscoring the variability of hepatitis presentations. Diagnosis involves blood tests, liver function assessments, imaging, and, in some cases, liver biopsies. Treatment options range from supportive care for self-limiting infections to antiviral therapies and potential liver transplants for advanced cases. Prevention is key, with vaccination, safe practices, and screening playing pivotal roles. As we navigate this expansive landscape, understanding hepatitis becomes paramount for individuals and healthcare systems worldwide, offering hope in the battle against this global health challenge.
  • 714
  • 08 Oct 2023
Topic Review
Enteric Viruses in Process Water
Process water has been defined as water resulting from washing raw materials, rinsing water, or water used for cooling or transport, which usually accumulates organic matter, including micro-organisms. Process water in the fruit and vegetable sector is highly variable in terms of quality parameters, such as dissolved solids, chemical oxygen demand, and microbiological quality. This fact makes it a challenge to implement a standard treatment fit for all purposes. The occurrence of potentially infectious enteric viruses in PW used by the fresh produce industry is likely possible, and thus, it must be closely examined. Several factors must be considered to address this issue: (i) Relatively low levels of enteric viruses introduced will be randomly distributed into large volumes of water and may not be detectable using protocols indicating small volume collection; (ii) sampling points in commercial facilities are critical for pathogen detection; (iii) molecular-based methods, currently used for enteric virus detection in food cannot discriminate between inactivated and potentially infectious enteric viruses; (iv) organic fresh produce market, limiting the use of sanitizers, has tremendously increased in the last years and the food safety perception of consumers must be assured. 
  • 711
  • 24 Aug 2021
Topic Review
RIG-I-Like Receptors
Kaposi’s sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) and the Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) are double-stranded DNA oncogenic gammaherpesviruses. These two viruses are associated with multiple human malignancies, including both B and T cell lymphomas, as well as epithelial- and endothelial-derived cancers. KSHV and EBV establish a life-long latent infection in the human host with intermittent periods of lytic replication. Infection with these viruses induce the expression of both viral and host RNA transcripts and activates several RNA sensors including RIG-I-like receptors (RLRs).
  • 710
  • 03 Aug 2023
Topic Review
Environmental Detection of Equine Herpesviruses
Equine herpesviruses (EHV) are a major health concern for domestic and wild equids and represent one of the most economically important disease agents of horses. Most known EHVs are transmitted directly between individuals as a result of direct exposure to exudates and aerosols. However, accumulating evidence suggests that environmental transmission may play a role including air, water, and fomites.
  • 707
  • 24 Jun 2021
Topic Review
Novel Antivirals for CHB Infection
Globally, chronic hepatitis B (CHB) infection is one of the leading causes of liver failure, decompensated cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma. Existing antiviral therapy can suppress viral replication but not fully eradicate the virus nor the risk of liver-related complications. Novel treatments targeting alternative steps of the viral cycle or to intensify/restore the host’s immunity are being developed. We discuss novel drugs that have already entered clinical phases of development. Agents that interfere with specific steps of HBV replication include RNA interference, core protein allosteric modulation, and inhibition of viral entry or viral protein excretion (NAPs and STOPS). Agents that target the host’s immunity include toll-like receptor agonists, therapeutic vaccines, immune checkpoint modulators, soluble T-cell receptors, and monoclonal antibodies. Most have demonstrated favorable results in suppression of viral proteins and genomic materials (i.e., HBV DNA and/or pre-genomic RNA), and/or evidence on host-immunity restoration including cytokine responses and T-cell activation. Given the abundant clinical experience and real-world safety data with the currently existing therapy, any novel agent for CHB should be accompanied by convincing safety data. Combination therapy of nucleos(t)ide analogue, a novel virus-directing agent, and/or an immunomodulatory agent will be the likely approach to optimize the chance of a functional cure in CHB.
  • 707
  • 06 Jul 2021
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