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Topic Review Peer Reviewed
Entomopathogenic Fungi: Interactions and Applications
Entomopathogenic fungi are a special group of soil-dwelling microorganisms that infects and kills insects and other arthropods through cuticle penetration. They are currently used as biocontrol agents against insect plant pests and play a vital role in their management. Regardless that entomopathogenic fungi are currently on the agriculture market, their full potential has not yet been utterly explored. Up to date substantial research has covered the topic revealing numerous uses in pest management but also on their ability as endophytes, assisting the plant host on growth and pathogen resistance. This article addresses the literature on entomopathogenic fungi through the years, noting their mode of action, advantages, potential applications, and prospects.
  • 5.2K
  • 14 Apr 2022
Topic Review Peer Reviewed
Main Carotenoids Produced by Microorganisms
Carotenoids are the pigments present in plants, animals, and microorganisms which are responsible for a broad variety of colors found in nature. Their capacity as antioxidants mainly established their marketable success as health, food, and feed supplements, and cosmetics components. Currently, chemical synthesis dominates the worldwide market; however, due to the high biological value of natural carotenoids, the production scheme is moving towards microbial production as a profitable alternative. 
  • 5.1K
  • 13 Apr 2022
Topic Review
Cyanophyceae
Cyanobacteria (/saɪˌænoʊbækˈtɪəri.ə/), also known as Cyanophyta, are a phylum of Gram-negative bacteria that obtain energy via photosynthesis. The name cyanobacteria refers to their color (from grc κυανός (kuanós) 'blue'), which similarly forms the basis of cyanobacteria's common name, blue-green algae.[note 1] They appear to have originated in a freshwater or terrestrial environment. Sericytochromatia, the proposed name of the paraphyletic and most basal group, is the ancestor of both the non-photosynthetic group Melainabacteria and the photosynthetic cyanobacteria, also called Oxyphotobacteria. Cyanobacteria use photosynthetic pigments, such as carotenoids, phycobilins, and various forms of chlorophyll, which absorb energy from light. Unlike heterotrophic prokaryotes, cyanobacteria have internal membranes. These are flattened sacs called thylakoids where photosynthesis is performed. Phototrophic eukaryotes such as green plants perform photosynthesis in plastids that are thought to have their ancestry in cyanobacteria, acquired long ago via a process called endosymbiosis. These endosymbiotic cyanobacteria in eukaryotes then evolved and differentiated into specialized organelles such as chloroplasts, chromoplasts, etioplasts, and leucoplasts, collectively known as plastids. Cyanobacteria are the first organisms known to have produced oxygen. By producing and releasing oxygen as a byproduct of photosynthesis, cyanobacteria are thought to have converted the early oxygen-poor, reducing atmosphere into an oxidizing one, causing the Great Oxidation Event and the "rusting of the Earth", which dramatically changed the composition of the Earth's life forms. The cyanobacteria Synechocystis and Cyanothece are important model organisms with potential applications in biotechnology for bioethanol production, food colorings, as a source of human and animal food, dietary supplements and raw materials. Cyanobacteria produce a range of toxins known as cyanotoxins that can pose a danger to humans and animals.
  • 5.0K
  • 01 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Lignocellulosic biomass (LC biomass)
      Bioenergy represents energy from biomass and plays an important role in promoting renewable alternatives. LC biomass is one of the most generous renewable bioresources in nature containing lignin, cellulose, and hemicelluloses. Lignocellulosic materials are the best sources used for biofuel production, such as biogas, and include residues from agriculture and forests, energy crops, and municipal and food waste. According to the latest statistical report for biogas, in Europe, almost 72% of the feedstocks used in the anaerobic digestion (AD) process for biogas production come from the agricultural sector, such as energy crops, manure, and other agricultural residues. The main issue of using lignocellulosic (LC) biomass for the biogas production is biomass recalcitrance, which represents biomass resistance to chemical and biological breakdown.
  • 4.7K
  • 17 Aug 2021
Topic Review
Myocyte
A myocyte (also known as a muscle cell) is the type of cell found in some types of muscle tissue. Myocytes develop from myoblasts to form muscles in a process known as myogenesis. There are two specialized forms of myocytes with distinct properties: cardiac, and smooth muscle cells. On the other hand, skeletal muscles are formed by morphological units referred to as muscle fibers. Cardiomyocytes are the cells that form the chambers of the heart, and have a single central nucleus. Skeletal muscle fibers help support and move the body and are called syncytia – multinucleated structures formed by fusion of individual myoblasts during embryonic development. Smooth muscle cells control involuntary movements such as the peristalsis contractions in the oesophagus and stomach.
  • 4.7K
  • 25 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Epithelioid Cell
According to a common point of view Epithelioid cells (also called Epithelioid histiocytes) are derivatives of activated macrophages resembling epithelial cells.
  • 4.5K
  • 04 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Polyenes
Polyenes were, after griseofulvin, the first fungal-specific antibiotics on the market and ever since, more than 200 polyene antifungals have been discovered, of which amphotericin B, nystatin and natamycin are most commonly used in antifungal therapy .
  • 4.4K
  • 12 Jan 2021
Topic Review
Biocontrol Agents
Biocontrol agents (BCAs) are living organisms and their derivatives that act against plant diseases and pests via direct antagonistic effects but also indirectly via the induction of plant resistance. They have been proposed as an alternative to standard fungicides but their disease management capacity is usually incomplete and heavily relies on uncontrollable environmental conditions. An integrated approach of combining BCAs with fungicides can reduce the fungicide doses to manage plant diseases and thereby their residual effects that affect the environment and human health.
  • 4.4K
  • 16 Dec 2020
Topic Review Peer Reviewed
Marine Fungi: Opportunities and Challenges
Marine fungi play a crucial role in energy flow and nutrient recycling, mediating the cycling of dissolved organic matter in marine environments. However, despite being a prolific group of organisms, marine fungi have been largely neglected for a long time. Besides their importance in the marine food web, marine fungi represent an active source of natural products. Over the last years, researchers have focused on studying marine organisms to discover new metabolites with antibacterial, antiviral, and anticancer activities. Moreover, with the advances in high-throughput sequencing technologies and mass spectrometry techniques, genomic and metabolomic approaches have revealed to be of paramount importance in natural products discovery. The marine mycobiome includes many organisms still to be identified, and the ones already known are still underutilized in biotechnological applications. For this reason, it is undeniable that exploring the marine mycobiome including new habitats and substrates, even those of remote access, is fundamental for describing the true magnitude of the Earth’s mycobiome.
  • 4.3K
  • 13 Apr 2022
Topic Review
Multi-Drug Resistance
Multidrug-resistance is a long debated term. Since 1980 it was used to imply the resistance of a microorganism to multiple pharmaceutical agents, without the number or types of antimicrobials being specified.Currently, the most widely accepted definition of multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria include a lack of susceptibility in three or more antimicrobial categories active against the isolated microorganism.
  • 4.2K
  • 27 Aug 2020
Topic Review
Antimicrobial Peptides for Wound Infections
Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), also called host defense peptides (HDPs), are found in bacteria, fungi, plants, and animals. They typically consist of 10–50 amino acid residues (very rarely up to 100 amino acids) and generally possess cationic (net charge ranging from −4 to +20) and amphipathic structures. 
  • 4.2K
  • 09 Dec 2020
Topic Review
Giardia lamblia
Giardia lamblia, also known as Giardia intestinalis, is a flagellated parasitic microorganism, that colonizes and reproduces in the small intestine, causing giardiasis. The parasite attaches to the epithelium by a ventral adhesive disc or sucker, and reproduces via binary fission. Giardiasis does not spread via the bloodstream, nor does it spread to other parts of the gastrointestinal tract, but remains confined to the lumen of the small intestine. Giardia trophozoites absorb their nutrients from the lumen of the small intestine, and are anaerobes. If the organism is split and stained, its characteristic pattern resembles the familiar "smiley face" symbol. Chief pathways of human infection include ingestion of untreated sewage, a phenomenon particularly common in many developing countries; contamination of natural waters also occurs in watersheds where intensive grazing occurs. Giardia infections occur worldwide, however Giardia lamblia is the most commonly identified intestinal parasite in the United States and Canada among children in day care centers, hikers, family members, homosexual male partners and immunocompromised adults. Approximately 20,000 cases per year in the United States are reported.
  • 4.0K
  • 25 Oct 2022
Topic Review
MecA (Gene)
The mecA gene is a gene found in bacterial cells which allows a bacterium to be resistant to antibiotics such as methicillin, penicillin and other penicillin-like antibiotics. The most commonly known carrier of the mecA gene is the bacterium known as Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). In Staphylococcus species, mecA is spread on the SCCmec genetic element. Resistant strains are responsible for many infections originating in hospitals. The mecA gene does not allow the ringlike structure of penicillin-like antibiotics to bind to the enzymes that help form the cell wall of the bacterium (transpeptidases), and hence the bacteria is able to replicate as normal. mecA is located on the staphylococcal chromosome cassette mec. The gene encodes the protein PBP2A (penicillin binding protein 2A). PBP2A has a low affinity for beta-lactam antibiotics such as methicillin and penicillin. This enables transpeptidase activity in the presence of beta-lactams, preventing them from inhibiting cell wall synthesis.
  • 3.9K
  • 03 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Methicilin-Susceptible Staphylococcus aureus
Antibiotic resistance is a global health challenge nowadays, and methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA) is a skin infection presents as pimples, boils, abscesses, or infected cuts and is not resistant to certain antibiotics. MSSA affects people of all ages and is known to cause epidemics among sports teams, families, prison inmates, and people who live and work in close quarters and is a global health challenge nowadays, creating problems in antibiotic therapy.
  • 3.9K
  • 10 Nov 2020
Topic Review
Detection and Diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19
Latest weeks the humanity is faced with the spread of a new coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2 that causes a respiratory illness with high mortality rates, COVID-19. Since there is no approved treatment or vaccination against that specific coronavirus the reduce in virus spread is essential. That is based in the use of appropriate tools, enabling the accurate and early detection. Molecular biology and immunological techniques are widely used in order to predict the COVID-19 cases in a very short period of time. These are commonly based either in identification of the SARS-CoV-2’s genetic material or in detection of antibodies that have been produced by the immune system against the virus. Many of the above mentioned tests have been validated and approved by local authorities. However, there are much more companies that provide detection tests, without basic validation processes, contributing in non-precise data. The present review aim to analyze the most common platforms that are used in COVID-19 detection, analyzing their advantages and weaknesses. Therefore, each physician will be equipped with appropriate information required for each test.
  • 3.9K
  • 29 Oct 2020
Topic Review Peer Reviewed
Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi in Agriculture
Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi are biotrophic symbionts forming close relationships with an estimated 80% of terrestrial plants suitable as their host. Via an established AM fungal–host relationship, soil-bound nutrients are made available to the host plant through root cortical arbuscules as the site of exchange. At these sites, photosynthetic carbohydrates are provided to the AM fungus—carbohydrates that cannot be produced by the fungus. AM fungal–host symbiosis is very sensitive to soil disturbance, for example, agricultural tillage practices can damage and reduce AM fungal abilities to interact with a host and provide plant growth-promoting properties.
  • 3.8K
  • 13 Apr 2022
Topic Review
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
Pseudomonas aeruginosa is the most frequent cause of infection among non-fermenting Gram-negative bacteria, predominantly affecting immunocompromised patients, but its pathogenic role should not be disregarded in immunocompetent patients. seudomonas aeruginosa is the most frequent cause of infection among non-fermenting Gram-negative bacteria, predominantly affecting immunocompromised patients, but its pathogenic role should not be disregarded in immunocompetent patients.
  • 3.8K
  • 21 Jan 2021
Topic Review
Airsacculitis
Airsacculitis, also known as air sacculitis, aerosacculitis, air sac disease, air sac infection, air sac syndrome and simply sac disease, is a common inflammatory condition of air sacs that occurs in birds and is caused by various microbial (mostly bacterial) taxa. Having multiple different causative agents, the condition is widely distributed around the world. Since the disease is highly infectious it is especially dangerous for domesticated birds (poultry) bred on big farms. Occurrence of airsacculitis in big flocks can mean high economic loss, as infected poultry needs to be carefully observed, with all of the infected tissue disposed of and not used for human food. In severe cases of the disease whole infected bird carcasses need to be disposed. Usually the disease affects younger birds, aged between 6 and 12 weeks. The most characteristic sign of airsacculitis is an inflamed mucous membrane of bird air sacs, which swells and becomes red, with infected birds exhibiting different symptoms, such as coughing, lethargy, swelling of the neck, difficult breathing, appetite and weight loss etc. The same term is used for bacterial infection and subsequent inflammation of laryngeal air sacs in non-human primates.
  • 3.7K
  • 25 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Bifidobacteria
Bifidobacteria are high G+C Gram positive bacteria belonging to the Actinobacteria phylum isolated from the gastrointestinal tract of different mammals, birds and social insects.
  • 3.6K
  • 11 Jan 2021
Topic Review
Streptococcus gordonii
Streptococcus gordonii, a Gram-positive bacterium, is a commensal bacterium that is commonly found in the skin, oral cavity, and intestine.  It is also known as an opportunistic pathogen that can cause local or systemic diseases, such as apical periodontitis and infective endocarditis. S. gordonii, an early colonizer, easily attaches to host tissues, including tooth surfaces and heart valves, forming biofilms. S. gordonii penetrates into root canals and blood streams, subsequently interacting with various host immune and non-immune cells. The cell wall components of S. gordonii, which include lipoteichoic acids, lipoproteins, serine-rich repeat adhesins, peptidoglycans, and cell wall proteins, are recognizable by individual host receptors. They are involved in virulence and immunoregulatory processes causing host inflammatory responses. Therefore, S. gordonii cell wall components act as virulence factors that often progressively develop diseases through overwhelming host responses.
  • 3.6K
  • 29 Dec 2020
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