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Topic Review
Pathophysiology of the Metabolic Syndrome
Metabolic syndrome (MetS) is a disease that has a complex etiology. It is defined as the co-occurrence of several pathophysiological disorders, including obesity, hyperglycemia, hypertension, and dyslipidemia.
  • 2.9K
  • 22 Apr 2022
Topic Review
Extracellular Calcium and Inflammation
Burn injury serves as an example of a condition with a robust systemic inflammatory response. The elevation of circulating interleukins (IL)-1β and -6 in children and adolescents with severe burn injury upregulates the parathyroid calcium-sensing receptor (CaSR), resulting in hypocalcemic hypoparathyroidism accompanied by urinary calcium wasting. This effect protects the body from the hypercalcemia that results from bone resorption, liberating calcium into the circulation. Extracellular calcium can exacerbate and prolong the inflammatory response by stimulating mononuclear cell chemokine production as well as the NLRP3 inflammasome of the innate immune system, resulting in increased IL-1 production by monocytes and macrophages. Interestingly, the CaSR upregulation in response to inflammatory cytokines disappears with age, potentially trapping calcium from bone resorption in the circulation, allowing it to contribute to increased inflammation and possibly increased calcium deposition in small arteries, such as the coronaries, as conditions with increased chronic inflammation, such as spinal cord injury, osteoarthritis, and rheumatoid arthritis have an incidence of cardiovascular disease and coronary artery calcium deposition significantly higher than the unaffected age-matched population. 
  • 2.7K
  • 08 Aug 2022
Topic Review
Molecular Iodine Has Extrathyroidal Effects
Most investigations of iodine metabolism in humans and animals have focused on its role in thy-roid function. However, considerable evidence indicates that iodine could also be implicated in the physiopathology of other organs.
  • 2.6K
  • 23 Feb 2021
Topic Review
Timing Sequence and Mechanism of Endocrine Organs Aging
The endocrine glands are one of the most important organs in the context of aging. Failure of the endocrine glands lead to an abnormal hormonal environment, which in turn leads to many age-related diseases. The aging of endocrine glands is closely linked to oxidative stress, cellular autophagy, genetic damage, and hormone secretion. The first endocrine organ to undergo aging is the pineal gland, at around 6 years old. This is followed in order by the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, adrenal glands, gonads, pancreatic islets, and thyroid gland.
  • 2.6K
  • 26 Apr 2023
Topic Review
Thermogenesis
Thermogenesis is an energy demanding process by which endotherms produce heat to maintain their body temperature in response to cold exposure. Mitochondria in the brown and beige adipocytes play a key role in thermogenesis, as the site for uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1), which allows for the diffusion of protons through the mitochondrial inner membrane to produce heat. 
  • 2.5K
  • 23 Mar 2021
Topic Review
Environmental Factors Affect Parathyroid Hormone and Calcitonin
Calciotropic hormones, parathyroid hormone (PTH) and calcitonin are involved in the regulation of bone mineral metabolism and maintenance of calcium and phosphate homeostasis in the body. Therefore, an understanding of environmental and genetic factors influencing PTH and calcitonin levels is crucial. Genetic factors are estimated to account for 60% of variations in PTH levels.
  • 2.5K
  • 22 Sep 2022
Topic Review
New Insights into Melanocytes Beyond Conventional Recognition
Melanocytes produce melanin to protect the skin from UV-B radiation. Notwithstanding, the spectrum of their functions extends far beyond their well-known role as melanin production factories. Melanocytes have been considered as sensory and computational cells. The neurotransmitters, neuropeptides, and other hormones produced by melanocytes make them part of the skin’s well-orchestrated and complex neuroendocrine network, counteracting environmental stressors. Melanocytes can also actively mediate the epidermal immune response. Melanocytes are equipped with ectopic sensory systems similar to the eye and nose and can sense light and odor.In addition, melanocytes have also been shown to be localized in internal sites such as the inner ear, brain, and heart, locations not stimulated by sunlight.
  • 2.4K
  • 18 Jul 2022
Topic Review
Detecting Analytes in Urine for Urinalysis
Human urine samples contain several components that can indicate the health condition of a patient, and therefore aid in the diagnosis of common clinical conditions such as diabetes mellitus (DM), urinary tract infections (UTIs), renal stone disease, kidney disorders, liver problems, obesity, other metabolic disorders, or fetal hypothyroidism. Urine samples also provide evidence of underlying health problems in pre-symptomatic and asymptomatic individuals, which can facilitate early intervention and therapy. These benefits play an important role in encouraging individual access to continuous and regular health monitoring.
  • 2.4K
  • 06 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM)
Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM) is a transient condition characterized by carbohydrate intolerance, hyperglycemia, peripheral insulin resistance, insufficient insulin secretion or activity, endothelial dysfunction, and low-grade inflammation during pregnancy, frequently with the first onset between 24 and 28 weeks of gestation.
  • 2.4K
  • 28 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Testosterone and DHEA and Immune Response
Androgens are steroids that modulate various processes in the body, ranging from reproduction, metabolism, and even immune response. The main androgens are testosterone, dihydrotestosterone (DHT) and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA). These steroids modulate the development and function of immune response cells. Androgens are generally attributed to immunosuppressive effects; however, this is not always the case. Variations in the concentrations of these hormones induce differences in the innate, humoral, and cell-mediated immune response, which is concentration dependent. The androgens at the highest concentration in the organism that bind to the androgen receptor (AR) are DHEA and testosterone. 
  • 2.3K
  • 15 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Integrins and Immune Cells in Cancer Immunology
Integrins, a superfamily of cell adhesion receptors, bind to extracellular matrix (ECM) ligands and cell surface ligands to mediate physiological activities. Integrins are composed of a transmembrane α subunit and β subunit, with 18 α subunits and 8 β subunits currently known, constituting 24 heterodimers in humans that are divided into four categories: RGD receptors, leucocyte-specific receptors, collagen receptors, and laminin receptors.
  • 2.3K
  • 12 Apr 2023
Topic Review
Selective Autophagy in Age-Associated Pathologies
Selective autophagy degrades a plethora of autophagic cargo, which is targeted upon specific cellular insults. Defective mitochondria (mitophagy), protein aggregates (aggrephagy) or pathogenic bacteria (xenophagy) are selective autophagy triggers. Atg8 proteins interact and recruit selective autophagic receptors, which contain LIR (LC3-interacting) motifs (W/F/Y-X-X-L/I/V), with upstream negatively charged residues for higher affinity interactions, as well as, post-translational modifications, such as phosphorylation.
  • 2.2K
  • 07 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Polyamines
Polyamines (PAs), such as putrescine (PUT), spermine (SPE), and spermidine (SPD), are organic polycationic alkylamines, which are synthesized from L-ornithine or by the decarboxylation of amino acids. They are found in all living cells and mammalian cells contain a millimolar concentration of PAs. In 1678, the SPE was first identified by Van Leeuwenhoek as crystals in dried semen but not in fresh ones.
  • 2.2K
  • 28 Jun 2021
Topic Review
Growth hormon Central regulate metabolism
Growth hormone (GH) is secreted by the pituitary gland, and in addition to its classical functions of regulating height, protein synthesis, tissue growth, and cell proliferation, GH exerts profound effects on metabolism. In this regard, GH stimulates lipolysis in white adipose tissue and antago-nizes insulin’s effects on glycemic control. During the last decade, a wide distribution of GH-responsive neurons were identified in numerous brain areas, especially in hypothalamic nu-clei, that control metabolism. The specific role of GH action in different neuronal populations is now starting to be uncovered, and so far, it indicates that the brain is an important target of GH for the regulation of food intake, energy expenditure, and glycemia and neuroendocrine changes, particularly in response to different forms of metabolic stress such as glucoprivation, food re-striction, and physical exercise.
  • 2.2K
  • 10 Feb 2021
Topic Review
Rapid Nontranscriptional Effects of Calcifediol and Calcitriol
Classically, a secosteroid hormone, vitamin D, has been implicated in calcium and phosphate homeostasis and has been associated with the pathogenesis of rickets and osteomalacia in patients with severe nutritional vitamin D deficiency. The spectrum of known vitamin D-mediated effects has been expanded in recent years. However, the mechanisms of how exactly this hormone elicits its biological function are still not fully understood. The interaction of this metabolite with the vitamin D receptor (VDR) and, subsequently, with the vitamin D-responsive element in the region of specific target genes leading to the transcription of genes whose protein products are involved in the traditional function of calcitriol (known as genomic actions). Moreover, in addition to these transcription-dependent mechanisms, it has been recognized that the biologically active form of vitamin D3, as well as its immediate precursor metabolite, calcifediol, initiate rapid, non-genomic actions through the membrane receptors that are bound as described for other steroid hormones. So far, among the best candidates responsible for mediating rapid membrane response to vitamin D metabolites are membrane-associated VDR (VDRm) and protein disulfide isomerase family A member 3 (Pdia3). 
  • 2.1K
  • 29 Jun 2022
Topic Review
Methylation
Methylation is a universal biochemical process which covalently adds methyl groups to a variety of molecular targets. It plays a critical role in two major global regulatory mechanisms, epigenetic modifications and imprinting, via methyl tagging on histones and DNA. During reproduction, the two genomes that unite to create a new individual are complementary but not equivalent. Methylation determines the complementary regulatory characteristics of male and female genomes. DNA methylation is executed by methyltransferases that transfer a methyl group from S-adenosylmethionine, the universal methyl donor, to cytosine residues of CG (also designated CpG). Histones are methylated mainly on lysine and arginine residues. The methylation processes regulate the main steps in reproductive physiology: gametogenesis, and early and late embryo development, and thus play a crucial role in the transmission of life. 
  • 2.1K
  • 17 Dec 2020
Topic Review
Metabolic Reprogramming
Metabolic reprogramming is now recognized as a hallmark of cancer cells and supports cancer growth. Elucidating the underlying mechanisms of metabolic reprogramming in cancer cells may help identifying cancer targets and treatment strategies.
  • 2.1K
  • 20 Jan 2021
Topic Review
Diabetes Mellitus
Diabetes mellitus has become a serious and chronic metabolic disorder that results from a complex interaction of genetic and environmental factors, principally characterized by hyperglycemia, polyuria, and polyphagia.
  • 2.1K
  • 29 Apr 2021
Topic Review
Metformin
Metformin is a metabolic modulator widely used to treat type II diabetes and metabolic syndrome patients. It shows a safe profile and its use in additional indications, such as cancer, is an important matter of investigation.
  • 2.1K
  • 09 Dec 2020
Topic Review
Erythritol
The sugar alcohol erythritol is a relatively new food ingredient. It is naturally occurring in plants, however, produced commercially by fermentation. It is also produced endogenously via the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP). Consumers perceive erythritol as less healthy than sweeteners extracted from plants, including sucrose. 
  • 2.1K
  • 09 Jan 2023
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