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Topic Review
Adipokines
Adipokines are adipose tissue-derived factors not only playing an important role in metabolism but also influencing other central processes of the body, such as inflammation.
  • 1.1K
  • 03 Mar 2021
Topic Review
The Complement System in Kidney Transplantation
Kidney transplantation is the therapy of choice for patients who suffer from end-stage renal diseases. Despite improvements in surgical techniques and immunosuppressive treatments, long-term graft survival remains a challenge. The complement cascade, a part of the innate immune system, plays a crucial role in the deleterious inflammatory reactions that occur during the transplantation process, such as brain or cardiac death of the donor and ischaemia/reperfusion injury. In addition, the complement system also modulates the responses of T cells and B cells to alloantigens, thus playing a crucial role in cellular as well as humoral responses to the allograft, which lead to damage to the transplanted kidney. 
  • 1.1K
  • 10 Mar 2023
Topic Review
Epidemiological and Clinical Factors Modulating COVID-19
Addressing factors modulating COVID-19 is crucial since abundant clinical evidence shows that outcomes are markedly heterogeneous between patients. This requires identifying the factors and understanding how they mechanistically influence COVID-19. While there is a multitude of factors modulating COVID-19. These modulating factors (MFs) were selected based on epidemiological and/or clinical studies to be representative of different categories: intrinsic (age, sex and genetic factors), co-morbidities (history of dyslipidemia, obesity, pre-existing heart failure and gut dysbiosis), lifestyle-related (vitamin D deficiency and diet) and environmental (air pollution and exposure to chemicals). 
  • 1.1K
  • 09 Sep 2022
Topic Review
Circulating Tumor Cells in Metastatic Cascade
Circulating tumor cells (CTCs) are a heterogeneous population of tumor cells that have shed from a tumor into the lymphatics and vasculature, ultimately disseminating into blood circulation. Circulating tumor cells are a key player in cancer metastasis, a multi-step and complex process that involves (1) local invasion of primary tumor cells into adjacent tissue; (2) intravasation (trans-endothelial migration into nearby blood vessels); (3) circulation (transient travel and survival in the circulatory system as CTCs); (4) extravasation; (5) colonization. To successfully metastasize, CTCs must evade immune surveillance at every step once they leave the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. On the other hand, immune cells can promote or inhibit tumorigenesis, depending on the cell type and context.
  • 1.1K
  • 04 Mar 2022
Topic Review
CAR T-Cells in the Treatment of Solid Tumors
Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cell therapy is a newly designed adoptive immunotherapy that is able to target and further eliminate cancer cells by engaging with MHC-independent tumor-antigens. CAR T-cell therapy has exhibited conspicuous clinical efficacy in hematological malignancies, but more than half of patients will relapse.  
  • 1.1K
  • 16 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Macrophages Proliferation in Health and Disease
Macrophages are the most abundant immune cells of the tumor microenvironment (TME) and have multiple important functions in cancer. Macrophages comprise a heterogeneous and functionally versatile population of innate immune cells. Compelling evidence indicate that the high degree of plasticity of macrophages and their ability to self-renew majorly impact tumor progression and resistance to therapy. In addition, the microenvironmental factors largely affect the metabolism of macrophages and may have a major influence on TAMs proliferation and subsets functions. Thus, understanding the signaling pathways regulating TAMs self-renewal capacity may help to identify promising targets for the development of novel anticancer agents.
  • 1.1K
  • 02 Nov 2022
Topic Review
DIHS/DRESS
Drug-induced hypersensitivity syndrome/drug reaction with eosinophilia and systemic symptoms (DIHS/DRESS) is a severe type of adverse drug eruption associated with multiorgan involvement and the reactivation of human herpesvirus 6, which arises after prolonged exposure to a limited number of drugs. Severe complications, some of which are related to cytomegalovirus reactivation, can be fatal. DIHS/DRESS is distinct from other drug reactions, as it involves herpes virus reactivation and can lead to the subsequent development of autoimmune diseases. The current consensus on the pathogenesis of DIHS/DRESS is that it occurs as a result of complex interactions between several herpesviruses and comprehensive immune responses, including drug-specific immune responses and antiviral immune responses. Although our understanding of the pathophysiology of DIHS/DRESS has evolved considerably over the last decade, the precise pathomechanisms of this complex disease remain largely unknown. This entry describes the clinical features of DIHS/DRESS, including the associated complications and sequelae.
  • 1.1K
  • 18 May 2021
Topic Review
Annelid Immune Response to Nanoparticles
Earthworms and leeches are sentinel animals that represent the annelid phylum within terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems, respectively. One early stress signal in these organisms is related to innate immunity, but how nanomaterials affect it is poorly characterized. In this survey, we compare the latest literature on earthworm and leeches with examples of their molecular/cellular responses to inorganic (silver nanoparticles) and organic (carbon nanotubes) nanomaterials. A special focus is placed on the role of annelid immunocytes in the evolutionarily conserved antioxidant and immune mechanisms and protein corona formation and probable endocytosis pathways involved in nanomaterial uptake. Our summary helps to realize why these environmental sentinels are beneficial to study the potential detrimental effects of nanomaterials.
  • 1.1K
  • 07 Dec 2020
Topic Review
Inflammation
Inflammation, a vital and intricately regulated biological response, defends the body against threats like pathogens and injuries. When balanced, it supports health, but disruption can lead to chronic inflammation and diseases like cardiovascular issues and cancer. This exploration delves into inflammation's mechanisms, involving lipid-derived mediators, proinflammatory cytokines, vasoactive mediators, hydrolytic enzymes, reactive oxygen species, transcription factors, and the complement system. Understanding these elements is crucial for targeted therapies against inflammation-related diseases. Researchers continually uncover innovative strategies to restore the balance between protective and pathological inflammation, offering hope to millions with chronic inflammatory conditions. Advancements promise more effective management, a brighter future, and improved lives.
  • 1.1K
  • 08 Sep 2023
Topic Review
Endothelial Dysfunction in Diabetes
Diabetes and its vascular complications affect an increasing number of people. This disease of epidemic proportion nowadays involves abnormalities of large and small blood vessels, all commencing with alterations of the endothelial cell (EC) functions. 
  • 1.1K
  • 15 Jan 2021
Topic Review
Dendritic Cells
Dendritic cells (DCs) are a unique myeloid cell lineage that play a central role in the priming of the adaptive immune response.  DCs are crucial sentinel cells able to recognize diverse tumor-associated antigens (TAA). Despite DCs critical “mentoring” role for T cells, single-agent DC-based therapies have been minimally successful and their combination with standard of care therapies and novel immunotherapies have shown limited improvement. The immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME) is likely the main reason for this reduced efficacy. The TME significantly shapes the phenotype and function of DCs rendering them dysfunctional and tolerogenic in orchestrating an effective anti-tumor response.
  • 1.0K
  • 26 Oct 2022
Topic Review
CAR T Cell Immune Therapy for Solid Tumors
Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells are genetically engineered T cells that recognize markers present on tumor cells and drive the degradation of the tumor itself. CAR T immunotherapy has obtained remarkable success in targeting a number of blood malignancies; however, its outcome is typically modest when applied to solid tumors, because of specific structural, biological, and metabolic aspects of the solid tumor environment. 
  • 1.0K
  • 08 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Host Defense Peptides
Host defense peptides (HDPs), also known as antimicrobial peptides, are an important component of the innate immune system. HDPs possess both antimicrobial and immunomodulatory properties. HDPs and their derivatives are being actively explored for antimicrobial therapies. A host-directed approach to stimulate the synthesis of endogenous HDPs is also being developed to treat infections with a minimum risk for developing antimicrobial resistance.
  • 1.0K
  • 18 Apr 2023
Topic Review
Efficacy of Vaccines
Vaccination is one of the most effective medical procedures with a significant impact on quality of life. The elderly and the immune-suppressed people are at risk to develop side effects or not respond. Elderly people present an altered immune response, known as immunosenescence. Immunosenescence involves mainly the adaptive immune system, with a reduced ability to respond to new antigens, accumulation of memory T cells and the constant presence of low-grade inflammation, known as inflammaging. Many alterations of adaptive immunity system have been observed and are probably central in the development of immunosenescence and possibly in the deficient response to vaccines in the elderly population. In this review, we discuss the role of immunosenescence as the result of alterations in the function of all the branches of the human immune response, which causes a defect in the normal homeostasis of the immune system, resulting probably in a major susceptibility of infections and a poorer response to vaccinations.
  • 1.0K
  • 27 Nov 2020
Topic Review
Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma
Non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) is the most frequent hematological neoplasm in the world with more than 544,000 new NHL cases diagnosed in 2020 (2.8% of all cancer diagnoses). Of all the NHL subtypes, the most common is diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL), accounting for approximately 40% of lymphoma cases. DLBCL is also one of the most aggressive subtypes; 5-year survival in elderly patients does not exceed 40%. The most common first-line treatment for DLBCL is chemoimmunotherapy containing rituximab, the so-called R-CHOP regimen (rituximab, cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, vincristine), which fails in 30–40% of patients. Although relapsed/refractory (r/r) patients receive second-line treatment or may undergo autologous stem cell transplantation, their prognosis remains poor. Years of employment of rituximab as a core of first-line treatment and recent observations on CAR-T cell therapy clearly demonstrate that the use of immunotherapy invariably leads to the induction of resistance.
  • 1.0K
  • 23 Feb 2022
Topic Review
Caspase Inhibition in Pemphigus Vulgaris Treatment
Pemphigus vulgaris is a potentially fatal autoimmune blistering disease characterised by blister formation affecting the skin and mucous membranes.
  • 1.0K
  • 23 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Innate Immunity and SARS-CoV-2 Infection
The innate immune system is important for initial antiviral response. SARS-CoV-2 can result in overactivity or suppression of the innate immune system. A dysregulated immune response is associated with poor outcomes; with patients having significant Neutrophil-to-Lymphocyte ratios (NLR) due to neutrophilia alongside lymphopenia. Elevated cytokines like interleukin (IL)-6 and IL-8 leads to overactivity and is a prominent feature of severe COVID-19 patients. Several factors like pre-existing co-morbidities, genetic risks, viral pathogenicity, and therapeutic efficacy act as important modifiers of SARS-CoV-2 risks for disease through an interplay with innate host inflammatory responses. In this review, we discuss the role of the innate immune system at play with other important modifiers in SARS-CoV-2 infection.
  • 1.0K
  • 21 Jun 2021
Topic Review
SARS-CoV-2 Vaccine Safety
Recovery from SARS-CoV-2 infection requires a solid first line of innate immunity defense, namely release of interferon-alpha and beta, which interfere with viral replication.  These critical defense factors are produced upon encounter of the RNA of the virus that succeeded in host cell invasion with the cytoplasmic innate immunity receptors, notably retinoic acid-inducible gene I (RIG-1).  A second line of defense would be the host generation of neutralizing and opsonic antibodies capable of preventing virus entry and virus spread, respectively.  We need to avoid or dampen host generation of powerful cytotoxic T cells, which lead to destruction of the host heart, lung, kidney, and small intestine cells presenting the viral peptides on their surface membrane, and potential organ failure and destruction.  We herein wish to demonstrate that the vaccine should be based uniquely on SARS-CoV-2 spike glycoprotein subunit 1 polypeptide, because that subunit is released upon virus invasion, and does not penetrate host critical cells in the heart, lung, liver, kidney and small intestine.  Differently from all other viral peptides, subunit 1 peptides are not readily processed for presentation on the surface of the host structural cells, rendering them targets for the destructive action of cytotoxic T lymphocytes and natural killer cells.  
  • 1.0K
  • 14 Dec 2020
Topic Review
Modeling Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors
Immune checkpoint inhibitors are revolutionizing the treatment of cancer, but models that accurately predict their efficacy before administering them to humans are badly needed.  This entry presents the application of a microfluidic tumor model that simulates the interactions between immune cells and tumors in a dynamic microenvironment, utilizing real-time imaging and image analytic algorithms to demonstrate excellent correlations between the laboratory model and animal studies.  Future applications of the system in precision medicine will explore the use of the device for selecting patient-specific therapies for cancer.
  • 1.0K
  • 26 Oct 2020
Topic Review
Cytokines and Chemokines in Cancer Cachexia
Cancer cachexia, a muscle-wasting syndrome, remains a serious public health concern worldwide, particularly as cancer rates rise. Treatment is endangered, and survival is reduced because this illness is commonly misdiagnosed and undertreated. Although weight loss is the most evident sign of cachexia, there are other early metabolic and inflammatory changes that occur before the most obvious symptoms appear. Cachexia-related inflammation is induced by a combination of factors, one of which is the release of inflammation-promoting chemicals by the tumor. Today, more scientists are beginning to believe that the development of SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) related cachexia is similar to cancer-related cachexia. 
  • 1.0K
  • 21 Feb 2022
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