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Topic Review
HPV in Cervical Cancer in the UK
Cervical cancer is the fourth most common malignancy in females worldwide, and a leading cause of death in the United Kingdom (UK). The human papillomavirus (HPV) is the strongest risk factor for developing cervical intraepithelial neoplasia and cancer. Across the UK, the national HPV immunisation programme, introduced in 2008, has been successful in protecting against HPV-related infections. Furthermore, the National Health Service (NHS) implemented the cytology-based cervical cancer screening service to all females aged 25 to 64, which has observed a decline in cervical cancer incidence. In the UK, there has been an overall decline in age-appropriate coverage since April 2010. In 2019, the COVID-19 pandemic disrupted NHS cancer screening and immunisation programmes, leading to a 6.8% decreased uptake of cervical cancer screening from the previous year. Engagement with screening has also been associated with social deprivation. In England, incidence rates of cervical cancer were reported to be 65% higher in the most deprived areas compared to the least, with lifestyle factors such as cigarette consumption contributing to 21% of cervical cancer cases.
  • 404
  • 28 Sep 2023
Topic Review
Organ-Sparing Surgery for Testicular Germ Cell Tumors
Organ-sparing surgery for testicular germ cell tumors offers a promising approach that balances oncological control and preservation of testicular function. Further research, including large-scale prospective studies and long-term follow-ups, is warranted to validate the effectiveness and durability of organ-sparing surgery and to identify optimal patient selection criteria.
  • 403
  • 02 Aug 2023
Topic Review
Regulation of Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transitions by Alternative Splicing
The epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is a complicated biological process in which cells with epithelial phenotype are transformed into mesenchymal cells with loss of cell polarity and cell–cell adhesion and gain of the ability to migrate. EMT and the reverse mesenchymal-epithelial transitions (METs) are present during cancer progression and metastasis. Using the dynamic switch between EMT and MET, tumour cells can migrate to neighbouring organs or metastasize in the distance and develop resistance to traditional chemotherapy and targeted drug treatments. Growing evidence shows that reversing or inhibiting EMT may be an advantageous approach for suppressing the migration of tumour cells or distant metastasis. Among different levels of modulation of EMT, alternative splicing (AS) plays an important role.
  • 402
  • 01 Nov 2023
Topic Review
NETs Affect the Outcome of Cancer Therapy
Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) were originally discovered as a part of the innate immune response of the host to bacteria. They form a web-like structure that can immobilize microorganisms or exhibit direct antimicrobial properties, such as releasing reactive oxygen species (ROS). Resistance to cancer therapy is an important prognostic factor that influences the survival rates of patients. As neutrophil activation and recruitment are present in most solid tumors, it is important to establish if and how the presence of NETs in the tumor microenvironment (TME) might influence the outcome of cancer therapy. In the past, low levels of circulating neutrophils were associated with higher survival rates for patients who underwent different cancer treatments, which was initially considered coincidental.
  • 401
  • 17 Feb 2024
Topic Review
Liquid Biopsies for Monitoring in Metastatic Breast Cancer
In breast cancer patients, a blood sample contains components from tumor origin as well as those influenced by the tumor disease. Analyzing blood as a so-called liquid biopsy in breast cancer (BC) patients has the potential to adapt therapy management. Circulating tumor cells (CTCs), extracellular vesicles (EVs), cell-free DNA (cfDNA) and other blood components mirror the tumoral heterogeneity and could support a range of clinical decisions. In a subgroup of breast cancer patients, the detection of mutations in a specific gene using cell-free DNA from blood might be suitable for therapy monitoring. An interventional trial confirmed a significant outcome benefit when therapy was changed in case of newly emerging cfDNA mutations under treatment and thus showed the clinical utility of cfDNA analysis for therapy monitoring. Monitoring value is defined as (1) the association of a laboratory result from a blood sample drawn under therapy with the clinically and/or radiographically proven therapy response or (2) the association of a laboratory result from a blood sample drawn under therapy with the prognosis of the disease/therapy in the course of time.
  • 396
  • 21 Nov 2023
Topic Review
Matrix Metalloproteinases and Head and Neck Cancer
Head and neck cancer (HNC) is among the ten most frequent tumours, with 5-year survival rates varying from 30% to 70% depending on the stage and location of the tumour. HNC is traditionally known as head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC), since 90% arises from epithelial cells. Metastasis remains a major cause of mortality in patients with HNSCC. HNSCC patients with metastatic disease have an extremely poor prognosis with a survival rate of less than a year. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) have been described as biomarkers that promote cell migration and invasion.
  • 395
  • 10 Jan 2024
Topic Review
Glioblastoma in Overcoming Microenvironment Immunosuppression
Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most aggressive and lethal primary brain tumor, bearing a survival estimate below 10% at five years, despite standard chemoradiation treatment. At recurrence, systemic treatment options are limited and the standard of care is not well defined, with inclusion in clinical trials being highly encouraged. So far, the use of immunotherapeutic strategies in GBM has not proved to significantly improve patients’ prognosis in the treatment of newly diagnosed GBM, nor in the recurrent setting.
  • 391
  • 19 Feb 2024
Topic Review
Prognostic and Predictive Serum Biomarkers in Prostate Cancer
Serum biomarkers are molecules produced by normal and abnormal cells. Prostate specific antigen (PSA) is an example of a serum biomarker used widely in the diagnosis and prognostication of prostate cancer. PSA has its limitations as it is organ- but not cancer-specific. The aim of this review is to summarize the current published data on the potential prognostic and predictive biomarkers in metastatic prostate cancer (mPC) that can be used in conjunction with PSA. These biomarkers include microRNAs, androgen receptor variants, bone metabolism, neuroendocrine and metabolite biomarkers, and could guide treatment selection and sequence in an era where we strive to personalized therapy.
  • 388
  • 27 Sep 2023
Topic Review
Posterior Reversible Encephalopathy Syndrome after Pazopanib
The term posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome (PRES) refers to an acute syndrome characterised by a range of neurological symptoms and posterior transient changes on neuroimaging. Common clinical presentation includes headache, confusion, visual disturbances, seizures, and focal neurological deficit. With the advancement and increasing availability of neuroimaging, this syndrome is increasingly recognised. There are several underlying causes for PRES, including certain medications. Tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) such as pazopanib can increase the risk of developing PRES by markedly elevating the blood pressure due to its effect of inhibition of vascular endothelial growth factor receptors (VEGFRs). 
  • 386
  • 18 Sep 2023
Topic Review
Hepatocellular Carcinoma in hepatitis C without Cirrhosis
The current NCCN guidelines recommend HCC surveillance in cirrhotic people every six months, using Ultra sound (U/S) abdomen and Alpha Feto Protien (AFP) levels. However, the National Comprehensive Cancer Network (NCCN) guideline only emphasizes the significance of screening if the patient has hepatitis B without cirrhosis, not hepatitis C without cirrhosis. This example illustrates the need for improved surveillance strategies for non-cirrhotic hepatitis C patients.
  • 383
  • 13 Nov 2024
Topic Review
Biological Markers of High-Risk Childhood Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia
Childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) has seen significant advances in treatment, yet children classified as high-risk still face challenging outcomes. Traditionally, the severity of ALL was assessed using basic clinical information at diagnosis, but now a deeper understanding of specific biological markers—such as molecular profiles, genetic variations, and immune system characteristics—has become crucial. These markers are not just keys to understanding the disease’s mechanisms, but also indicators of how it may progress and respond to treatment. For instance, the development of drugs like tyrosine kinase inhibitors can be used to target high-risk leukemia with certain genetic mutations. By focusing on the intricacies of high-risk childhood ALL, research is paving the way for more personalized and precise treatments, offering hope for better management of this complex disease.
  • 380
  • 12 Mar 2024
Topic Review
Hybrid PET/MRI in Cerebral Glioma
Advanced MRI methods and PET using radiolabelled amino acids provide valuable information in addition to conventional MR imaging for brain tumour diagnostics. The advent of hybrid PET/MRI has allowed a convergence of the methods, but up-to-date simultaneous imaging has reached little relevance in clinical neuro-oncology. A key factor for the benefit of PET/MRI in neuro-oncology is a multimodal approach that provides decisive improvements in the diagnostics of brain tumours compared with a single modality. 
  • 379
  • 28 Sep 2023
Topic Review
Cytokine Responses in Solid-Tumors Therapy
Precision cancer medicine primarily aims to identify individual patient genomic variations and exploit vulnerabilities in cancer cells to select suitable patients for specific drugs. These genomic features are commonly determined by gene sequencing prior to therapy, to identify individuals who would be most responsive. This precision approach in cancer therapeutics remains a powerful tool that benefits a smaller pool of patients, sparing others from unnecessary treatments. A limitation of this approach is that proteins, not genes, are the ultimate effectors of biological functions, and therefore the targets of therapeutics. An additional dimension in precision medicine that considers an individual’s cytokine response to cancer therapeutics is proposed. Cytokine responses to therapy are multifactorial and vary among individuals. Thus, precision is dictated by the nature and magnitude of cytokine responses in the tumor microenvironment exposed to therapy. 
  • 376
  • 13 Mar 2024
Topic Review
Circulating Tumour Cells in Advanced NSCLC
Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is one of the deadliest diseases worldwide. Tissue biopsy is the current gold standard for the diagnosis and molecular profiling of NSCLC.
  • 369
  • 22 Nov 2023
Topic Review
De Novo Metastatic Prostate Cancer Treatment
De novo metastatic hormone-sensitive prostate cancer usually has a dismal prognosis, which has slightly improved thanks to the introduction of new hormonal agents and chemotherapy combined with androgen deprivation therapy from the first-line setting. The randomized clinical trials that have furnished the current therapeutic options stratified patients according to clinical criteria that do not necessarily reflect the biological rationale of the chosen therapy. With the accumulation of data on genomic features and transcriptomic profiling, several ongoing clinical trials are investigating new therapeutic approaches and the efficacy of a biomarker-guided treatment with the aim of defining a personalized treatment for de novo metastatic hormone-sensitive prostate cancer.
  • 368
  • 23 Oct 2023
Topic Review
Electrospinning for Targeted Immunotherapeutics in HNC
Advanced head and neck cancer (HNC) is functionally and aesthetically destructive, and despite significant advances in therapy, overall survival is poor, financial toxicity is high, and treatment commonly exacerbates tissue damage.
  • 366
  • 03 Jan 2024
Topic Review
Predictive Biomarkers in Colorectal Cancer
Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the third most common malignancy worldwide. Surgery remains the most important treatment for non-metastatic CRC, and the administration of adjuvant chemotherapy depends mainly on the disease stage, which is still the strongest prognostic factor. A refined understanding of the genomics of CRC has recently been achieved thanks to the widespread use of next generation sequencing with potential future therapeutic implications. Microsatellite instability (MSI) has been suggested as a predictive marker for response to anti-programmed-cell-death protein 1 (PD-1) therapy in solid tumors, including CRC. It should be noted that not all cancers with MSI phenotype respond to anti-PD-1 immunotherapy, highlighting the urgent need for even better predictive biomarkers. Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase (MAPK) pathway genes KRAS, NRAS, and BRAF represent important molecular targets and could serve as independent prognostic biomarkers in CRC, and identify those who potentially benefit from anti-epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) treatment. Emerging evidence has attributed a significant role to inflammatory markers including blood cell ratios in the prognosis and survival of CRC patients; these biomarkers can be easily assessed in routine blood exams and be used to identify high-risk patients or those more likely to benefit from chemotherapy, targeted therapies and potentially immunotherapy. Analysis of cell-free DNA (cfDNA), circulating tumor cells (CTC) and/or micro RNAs (miRNAs) could provide useful information for the early diagnosis of CRC, the identification of minimal residual disease and, the evaluation of the risk of recurrence in early CRC patients. Even the selection of patients suitable for the new targeted therapy is becoming possible with the use of predictive miRNA biomarkers. Finally, the development of treatment resistance with the emergence of chemo-resistance clones after treatment remains the most important challenge in the clinical practice. In this context it is crucial to identify potential biomarkers and therapeutic targets which could lead to development of new and more effective treatments.
  • 365
  • 28 Sep 2023
Topic Review
Contributions of lncRNAs in the Regulation of Cancer
Cancer is a prime example derived from a loss of homeostasis, primarily caused by genetic alterations both in the genomic and epigenetic landscape, which results in deregulation of the gene networks. 
  • 364
  • 12 Oct 2023
Topic Review
Tumour Microenvironment and Metabolism
Many of the factors associated with tumour progression and immune resistance, such as yin yang (YY)1 and glycogen synthase kinase (GSK)3β, regulate acetyl-CoA and the melatonergic pathway, thereby having significant impacts on the dynamic interactions of the different types of cells present in the tumour microenvironment. The association of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) with immune suppression in the tumour microenvironment may be mediated by the AhR-induced cytochrome P450 (CYP)1b1-driven ‘backward’ conversion of melatonin to its immediate precursor N-acetylserotonin (NAS). NAS within tumours and released from tumour microenvironment cells activates the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) receptor, TrkB, thereby increasing the survival and proliferation of cancer stem-like cells. Acetyl-CoA is a crucial co-substrate for initiation of the melatonergic pathway, as well as co-ordinating the interactions of OXPHOS and glycolysis in all cells of the tumour microenvironment. This provides a model of the tumour microenvironment that emphasises the roles of acetyl-CoA and the melatonergic pathway in shaping the dynamic intercellular metabolic interactions of the various cells within the tumour microenvironment. The potentiation of YY1 and GSK3β by O-GlcNAcylation will drive changes in metabolism in tumours and tumour microenvironment cells in association with their regulation of the melatonergic pathway. 
  • 362
  • 29 Feb 2024
Topic Review
Fork-Head Box Genes in Breast Cancer
Breast cancer has been acknowledged as one of the most notorious cancers, responsible for millions of deaths around the globe. Understanding the various factors, genetic mutations, comprehensive pathways, etc., that are involved in the development of breast cancer and how these affect the development of the disease is very important for improving and revitalizing the treatment of this global health issue.
  • 353
  • 13 Nov 2023
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