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Chen, P.; Chen, W.; Lee, C.; Wu, J. Crystalline Silicon Solar Panel Recycling. Encyclopedia. Available online: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/53157 (accessed on 02 July 2024).
Chen P, Chen W, Lee C, Wu J. Crystalline Silicon Solar Panel Recycling. Encyclopedia. Available at: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/53157. Accessed July 02, 2024.
Chen, Pin-Han, Wei-Sheng Chen, Cheng-Han Lee, Jun-Yi Wu. "Crystalline Silicon Solar Panel Recycling" Encyclopedia, https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/53157 (accessed July 02, 2024).
Chen, P., Chen, W., Lee, C., & Wu, J. (2023, December 27). Crystalline Silicon Solar Panel Recycling. In Encyclopedia. https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/53157
Chen, Pin-Han, et al. "Crystalline Silicon Solar Panel Recycling." Encyclopedia. Web. 27 December, 2023.
Crystalline Silicon Solar Panel Recycling
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This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/su16010060

The global surge in solar energy adoption is a response to the imperatives of sustainability and the urgent need to combat climate change. Solar photovoltaic (PV) energy, harnessing solar radiation to produce electricity, has become a prevalent method for terrestrial power generation. At the forefront of this shift are crystalline silicon photovoltaics modules (PVMs), the primary tools in PV systems for solar energy capture. This growth is evidenced by a significant increase in installations, with an over 90% surge in the past decade, from 104 to 1053 gigawatts (GWs). These PVMs, predominantly silicon-based and representing 95% of global PV production in 2020, have a lifespan of 20–30 years. Projections indicate that by 2030, worldwide solar capacity might approach 2840 GW, and by 2050, it could climb to 8500 GW.

photovoltaic module recycling crystalline silicon solar panel sustainable waste management

1. Current State in PV Recycling

The PV industry has heavily invested its research and development (R&D) resources in enhancing the efficiency of crystalline silicon panels [1]. However, there has been a relatively small emphasis on developing cost-effective strategies for the dismantling and recycling of PV panel waste [1]. This disparity in focus is partly because most of the PV systems in use today were installed after 2010, leading to most PV waste originating from pre-consumer sources such as manufacturing scrap and decommissioned defective panels, rather than EoL PVMs [2][3][4].
Recycling PV panels, composed of a mixture of materials such as glass, metals, and polymers, poses significant challenges [5]. Regions such as Japan, Europe, and the US are at the forefront of R&D efforts aimed at solar module recycling [6], primarily focusing on silicon-based panels to recover and recycle key components [6]. The evolution in the composition of PV panels and fluctuations in raw material prices have led to variations in recycling processes [7][8].
Despite the limited availability of panels for recycling, academic research has been concentrated on addressing potential challenges [1]. These include the reduced electricity generation capacity of PV panels using recycled materials, inefficiencies arising from manual labor [1], risks of cross-contamination with other types of waste [4], and the high costs associated with dismantling, transporting, and recycling, especially given the hazardous elements in PV panel waste [9].
In the realm of PVM recycling, a variety of methodologies have been developed, each with its unique approach and focus. Bulk recycling, predominantly applied to crystalline silicon (c-Si) modules, concentrates on extracting basic materials such as glass and metals [10]. However, this method tends to overlook the recovery of semiconductor components and precious metals, often leading to the production of lower-grade recycled materials, especially glass [11].
Semi-high-value recycling, on the other hand, adopts a more selective recovery approach. This method often prioritizes specific components, such as the silicon wafer, but may neglect other valuable metals [12][13]. In contrast, high-value recycling encompasses a comprehensive approach, aiming to recover both basic and semiconductor materials [14][15]. This method strives to maximize the value of the recycled output by salvaging a broader range of components from the PV modules.
Beyond these methods, closed-loop recycling represents a progressive shift towards enhanced sustainability. Exemplified by practices at Deutsche Solar AG, this method integrates reclaimed cells back into standard PV module production. This approach not only focuses on resource efficiency but also significantly reduces waste, aligning closely with sustainable development goals [4][16].

2. Crystalline Silicon Solar Panel Composition

Understanding the composition and structure of crystalline silicon photovoltaic modules (PVMs) is critical in addressing the challenges and methods of recycling. These widely adopted panels feature a multi-layered design, each layer fulfilling specific functional and protective roles, as illustrated in Figure 1. This section delves into the detailed composition of crystalline silicon solar panels, exploring the function and significance of each component.
Sustainability 16 00060 g001
Figure 1. The Structure of a PVM.

2.1. Front Glass (or Cover)

Comprising tempered glass, the front cover serves as a protective layer for the solar cells, safeguarding them from environmental factors and ensuring optimal sunlight penetration. This component is crucial for maintaining the cells’ functionality and preventing efficiency loss due to external damage [17].

2.2. Silicon Solar Cells

At the core of the panel, these cells are responsible for converting sunlight into electricity. Available as monocrystalline or polycrystalline silicon, they are enhanced with multiple coatings, including the n-p junction and anti-reflective layer, for optimized performance and minimize efficiency reductions [18][19], as depicted in Figure 2. The energy-intensive production of these cells, often reliant on fossil fuels, has significant environmental impacts [20][21].
Sustainability 16 00060 g002
Figure 2. Layered structure of a silicon solar cell.

2.3. Anti-Reflective Coating

This coating enhances sunlight absorption, minimizing reflection loss and thereby ensuring the maximum amount of sunlight reaches the silicon solar cells for conversion into electricity [12].

2.4. Backing Film

Positioned behind the silicon cells, this film provides insulation and external protection. Available in various types, each backing film category has unique constructions and properties, which will be detailed in Table 1. The choice of film affects both cost and performance, with recent advancements improving UV durability.
Table 1. Comparative table of the three backing film categories.
Characteristic Double Fluoropolymer Single Fluoropolymer Non-Fluoropolymer
Composition A Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) core layer is encased by two external layers of fluoropolymer material, potentially Tedlar (Polyvinyl Fluoride, PVF) or Kynar (Polyvinylidene Fluoride, PVDF) Tedlar or Kynar on the outer side; PET and primer or EVA layers on the inner side Two PET layers and one primer or EVA layer
Protection Level Superior Satisfactory Basic, but improving with advancements
Price Most expensive Moderate Cheapest
UV Durability High Satisfactory High
(with recent advancements)
Historical Context Preferred for high protection Developed to balance cost and performance Initially avoided due to
degradation risks
Advancements N/A N/A Significant, leading to highly UV-durable films

2.5. Junction Box and Electrical Connections

Located at the panel’s rear, the junction box houses electrical components crucial for electricity collection and transfer. Features such as bypass diodes enhance panel performance by preventing power loss due to shading [22].

2.6. Frame

Constructed primarily from aluminum, the frame offers essential structural support, enabling the panel to endure environmental pressures such as wind and snow loads. The frame’s material contributes significantly to the panel’s total weight [6][23][24].

2.7. Encapsulants

Predominantly composed of ethyl vinyl acetate (EVA), encapsulants are a key component in PVMs, offering protection, electrical insulation, and moisture barrier functionalities. These encapsulants are placed as thin layers around the solar cells and undergo heating at 150 °C to initiate EVA polymerization, solidifying the module’s structure [25]. They must exhibit high-temperature and UV stability, maintain optical transparency, and possess low thermal resistance for the module’s efficient function [26][27].

2.8. Composition and Recyclability

A typical crystalline silicon solar panel comprises glass (70%), aluminum (18%), adhesive sealant (5%), silicon (3.5%), plastic (1.5%), and other materials (2%), as outlined in Table 2. While lacking rare metals found in thin-film solar panels, the materials in crystalline silicon panels are nonetheless valuable for recycling. The challenge lies in the separation and recycling of these materials, due to the compact and interconnected nature of PVMs [28].
Table 2. The composition of a crystalline silicon solar panel.
Unit Main
Component		 [23] [29] [30] [9]
Front Glass Glass 70% 70% 63% 54.721%
Silicon solar cells Silicon 3.56% 3.65% 4% 3.101%
Silver 0.05% 0.05% <0.01% 0.03%
Copper 1.14% 0.11% Not Available 0.451%
Tin 0.053% 0.05% <0.1% Not Available
Lead <0.1%
Aluminum 0.53% 0.53% 19%
Frame Aluminum 18% 18% 12%
Junction Box and
Electrical Connections		 Box body (including copper or plastic terminal), lid, diode, cables, connectors 1% Copper: 0.33%
Plastic: 0.67%		 Copper: 0.6%
Others: Not available		 Not Available
Encapsulants EVA 5.1% 5.1% Organic:11% 10%
Backing film PVF, PVDF, PET, etc. 1.5% 1.5% 17.091%
The composition of the data will vary depending on the different methods of collection.

3. Current Challenges in Solar Panel Recycling

The recycling of silicon solar panels, pivotal to the sustainability of solar energy, is confronted with a multitude of challenges. These challenges span technical, environmental, and economic aspects, each intertwining to influence the feasibility and effectiveness of the recycling process. The rapid growth in solar panel installations worldwide has not been matched by equally swift advancements in recycling technologies, leading to significant gaps in capability and capacity. This section delves into the primary challenges faced by the recycling of silicon solar panels, highlighting the complexities and constraints that hinder the development of efficient recycling methods.

3.1. Volume Concern

The surge in silicon solar panel installations, particularly in regions such as China, has led to an increase in EoL panels. Current recycling methods in these areas often fall short of international standards, struggling to keep pace with the growing volume of solar waste [31]. There is a pressing need for the development of scalable and advanced recycling solutions to manage EoL silicon solar panels efficiently and sustainably. Additionally, the high costs associated with transporting large quantities of EoL panels, especially those installed at high altitudes for maximum sun exposure, pose a significant challenge. To mitigate this, simple and quick pretreatment methods at local sites are suggested to reduce the volume of solar panels, thereby decreasing transportation costs. Given that glass is the main component of solar panels, prioritizing its recycling and local utilization could offer a more sustainable waste management approach [32]. The remaining components, which contain valuable metals, can then be collected, and processed at specialized solar panel recycling facilities, further enhancing the efficiency and sustainability of the recycling process.

3.2. Material Recovery

Recovering materials from silicon solar panels is fraught with challenges, including the production of harmful dust which contains glass and noise pollution during the crushing process [6]. The loss of materials, including rare and conventional ones such as silver, aluminum, and glass, is a significant issue during disposal [33]. For instance, nitric acid dissolution can effectively remove the EVA and metal layer from the wafer, potentially enabling the recovery of the entire cell. However, this process can lead to cell defects due to the use of inorganic acid, consequently reducing the recovery rate of valuable metals contained within the cells [6]. A high recovery rate method, such as vacuum blasting, has the advantage of removing the semiconductor layer without chemical dissolution, and the recovery of glass. However, this technique also has drawbacks, including the emission of metallic fractions and a relatively long processing time [6]. The risk of releasing hazardous substances such as lead from damaged encapsulating glass of silicon PV cells raises environmental and health concerns [34]. Silicon dust inhalation and the release of compounds from EVA and other manufacturing chemicals also pose serious risks [34][35]. Innovative, efficient recovery and recycling processes are crucial to mitigate these risks, optimize resource utilization, minimize environmental impact, and ensure the sustainable use of silicon PV technology.

3.3. Environmental Impact

Recycling solar panels presents several environmental challenges. These include the release of harmful gases such as hydrofluoric acid during chemical treatments, exposure to toxic dust and noise during physical processes such as high voltage crushing, and the high energy consumption of thermal methods [10][35][36][37]. Additional issues such as nitrogen oxide emissions during EVA layer separation by nitric acid dissolution [6][38], waste disposal complications, and the prolonged dissolution time of the EVA layer using traditional organic solvents [39]. Typically, the utilization of organic solvents in the dissolution of EVA from PV panels needs extended time periods, resulting in less efficiency and the additional challenge of wastewater treatment. For example, isopropanol is used to dissolve the polymer over a span of two days, and trichloroethylene requires a duration of ten days at a temperature of 80 °C. Moreover, an alternative method combining organic solvent and ultrasonication has been explored. In this process, EVA is fully dissolved in 3 M O-dichlorobenzene (O-DCB) at 70 °C, with an irradiation power of 900 W, achieving dissolution in 30 min. However, this ultrasonic approach increases processing costs and leads to the generation of organic liquid waste, presenting further environmental and handling challenges. Given these constraints, there is a growing need to develop more environmentally sustainable and cost-effective methods for EVA dissolution. Future research could focus on identifying solvents that balance efficiency, environmental impact, and economic feasibility.

3.4. Economic Viability

The economics of recycling silicon solar panels are currently not favorable. The costs of establishing and operating recycling infrastructure are high compared to the benefits, especially considering the limited number of panels being decommissioned [40][41]. This economic challenge diminishes the incentive for manufacturers to engage in recycling efforts, pushing them towards landfilling or low-value recycling without material separation. Evaluating the potential for the recovery of valuable materials to offset overall recovery costs is essential to enhance the economic feasibility of silicon solar panel recycling and boost the competitiveness of PV technologies [42].
Many studies have carried out life cycle assessments (LCA) on the EoL PVM recycling. These LCAs have established that recycling PV panel waste can reduce both energy demands and the emissions linked to landfill disposal [43]. Additionally, while some studies analyzing energy and resource use, as well as air emissions during panel recycling, suggest that under current conditions, recycling PV waste might not be economically feasible [40][41]. Yet, a comprehensive understanding in this area remains limited. The task of comparing the economic and environmental impacts of different PV recycling technologies is hindered by several factors. These include variations in system boundaries, functional units, the degree of material recycling, and the ways in which LCA results are interpreted [43].
Pablo et al. [44] performed an LCA study comparing a simplified recycling method with a full recovery approach and landfilling. This simplified method involves deframing the module, shredding the laminate, and concentrating materials through electrostatic separation. This process results in two fractions: one being a valuable mix (comprising only 2–3 wt%) of silver, copper, aluminum, and silicon, and the other primarily consisting of glass, silicon, and polymers. An economic assessment of this method suggests it could be more profitable than full recovery, particularly for lower waste volumes (less than 4 kt/y), due to reduced capital costs for equipment. This study indicates that, under certain conditions, streamlined recycling processes can offer a more cost-effective alternative to comprehensive methods, potentially leading to more sustainable and economically viable solutions in the field of PV waste management.

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Contributors MDPI registered users' name will be linked to their SciProfiles pages. To register with us, please refer to https://encyclopedia.pub/register :
Pin-Han Chen
,
Wei-Sheng Chen
,
Cheng-Han Lee
,
Jun-Yi Wu
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Update Date: 27 Dec 2023
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