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Rahman, M.T. Poultry Production in Developing Countries under COVID-19 Crisis. Encyclopedia. Available online: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/20651 (accessed on 06 July 2024).
Rahman MT. Poultry Production in Developing Countries under COVID-19 Crisis. Encyclopedia. Available at: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/20651. Accessed July 06, 2024.
Rahman, Md. Tanvir. "Poultry Production in Developing Countries under COVID-19 Crisis" Encyclopedia, https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/20651 (accessed July 06, 2024).
Rahman, M.T. (2022, March 16). Poultry Production in Developing Countries under COVID-19 Crisis. In Encyclopedia. https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/20651
Rahman, Md. Tanvir. "Poultry Production in Developing Countries under COVID-19 Crisis." Encyclopedia. Web. 16 March, 2022.
Poultry Production in Developing Countries under COVID-19 Crisis
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This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/ani12050644

Poultry farming is a significant source of revenue generation for small farmers in developing countries. It plays a vital role in fulfilling the daily protein requirements of humans through meat and eggs consumption. The recently emerged pandemic Coronavirus Disease-19 (COVID-19) impacts the poultry production sector. Although the whole world is affected, these impacts may be more severe in developing countries due to their dependency on exporting necessary supplies such as feed, vaccines, drugs, and utensils. 

COVID-19 smallholder poultry developing countries

1. Impacts of COVID-19 on Food Security and Poultry Production

The COVID-19 pandemic, unlike previous pandemics such as SARA-CoV and Ebola, severely impacted the food supply chain indirectly through disruptions of the downstream stages such as transport and logistics [1][2][3][4][5]. It affected all dimensions of food security, including availability, access, utilization, stability, and sustainability, depending on the industry, the locality, and the financial status of the affected region [6][7]. Figure 1 illustrates the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on poultry production.
Animals 12 00644 g001 550
Figure 1. Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the global poultry sector.
Table 1 summarizes the negative impacts of SARS-CoV-2 on poultry production observed in some developing countries.
Table 1. Impacts of COVID-19 on poultry production in some developing countries.
Name of Country Adverse Effects on Poultry Production References
Bangladesh
  • Disruption of necessary supplies such as feed, vaccines, medicines, and equipment
  • People are unwilling to consume chicken and poultry products due to rumors that
    SARS-CoV-2 is transmitted through poultry and poultry products
  • Discrepancy between supply and demand
  • The poultry sector lost $825 million due to this pandemic
  • The poultry feed segment alone lost $98 million from January to May 2021
 [8]
Egypt
  • Negatively impacted many phases of the poultry logistic system, including production, transport, processing, marketing, retailing, and consumption
  • Farm profit fell by 20% in the first half of 2020, compared with 2019
  • Disruption of the production inputs (e.g., breeds, feeds, drugs, and vaccines)
 [9][10][11]
India
  • Dramatic negative impacts on the poultry industry
  • Projected losses were estimated to be $3053 million
  • The economic impact is not consistent across the country due to geographical variations in consumption patterns
 [12]
Indonesia
  • Disruption of the supply chain system
  • The market price of chicken dropped dramatically
  • Economic growth fell from 4.97% to 2.97%
  • A significant drop in demand for broiler chickens
 [13][14]
Ghana
  • Decrease in the importation of animals and livestock products
  • Reduction in the availability of feed resources and farm inputs for animal production, leading to increase of price
  • Animal production activities, including feeding, management, and disease control adversely affected as a result of the lockdown
 [15]
Myanmar
  • Negative impacts on chicken and egg industries
  • A decrease in demand in 60% broiler farms 40% of layer farms
  • Approximately 30% of broiler farms and 10% of layer farms have closed
  • 42% of long-term farm workers have been laid off
  • Reduction of broiler and egg prices
 [16][17]
Nigeria
  • A substantial drop in sales and market price of eggs (dropped approximately 20%)
 [18]
Saudi Arabia
  • The COVID-19 pandemic affected poultry consumption, transportation, and poultry business
 [19]

2. Plausible Explanations of COVID-19’s Damaging Effects on Animal Production

2.1. Concern about the Spread of SARS-CoV-2 from Animals and Social Rumors

At the beginning of this pandemic, the unknown nature of COVID-19 transmission was a major concern, particularly how it spread from animals to humans and vice versa [20][21]. However, poultry are not susceptible to SARS-CoV-2, although they are susceptible to other CoVs such as infectious bronchitis (IBV) that causes respiratory, intestinal, and urogenital problems in chickens [22][23]. IBV has also been reported in pheasants and peafowl [24]. The turkey coronavirus (TCoV) also causes enteric lesions [25][26] and might be involved in the poult enteritis and mortality syndrome (PEMS) [26]. There were also social rumors in some developing countries such as Bangladesh that SARS-CoV-2 can be transmitted via eggs and chickens, leading to price fluctuations for poultry meat and eggs and reducing consumption [21]. It has also been proposed that SARS-CoV-2 can spread through processed foods because it can survive for hours to several days on inanimate surfaces [27]; however, there is no evidence that the virus can be transmitted directly through food, milk, milk products, or eggs [28].

2.2. Lockdown and Restrictions of Trades

The lockdown of the food distributors, such as food courts, adversely influenced the retail demand. The transport restrictions negatively impacted the products, thus cumulatively affecting the animals in the farms, showing increased animal numbers and high husbandry costs [29][30]. The dynamics of the impacts of lockdown on food security are shown in Figure 2.
Animals 12 00644 g002 550
Figure 2. The dynamics of the impacts of lockdown on food security production adapted after HLPE [7]. Several overlapping and reinforcing dynamics affect the food system, such as disruption of the food supply chain and social protection programs, loss of income, shifted food environments, and uneven food prices.
The negative impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the food supply chain can be attributed to the global policies of lockdown according to the One Health world approach, the global economic recession, food price fluctuation, production changes, disrupted social protection, and changes in food environments. This complex relationship between different factors and the disruptions of the food supply chain indicated the slow recovery of the food supply chain in the future and the need for economic reform for faster recovery [9].
The negative impacts of lockdown on poultry productions are as follows:
(i) The animal feed supply was disrupted as due to lockdown, several countries such as Argentina and Brazil had to reduce their exports of raw materials of feed such as soybean and corn, which led to a shortage of dry feed in several developing countries [4][5][31]. In several African countries, the cost of chicken feed has increased [32].
(ii) Poultry services were reduced, such as equipment, day-old chicks for stock replacements, feed, vaccines, drugs, diagnostics, and feed additives (vitamins and minerals) [5]. Exporters in several countries also faced a considerable drop in demand for livestock-based foods in major importing markets.
(iii) Market closures and transportation restrictions hampered access to markets and customers, affecting both animals and animal products, such as eggs and meat.
(iv) The shortage of laborers severely impacted the poultry industry in developing countries, since poultry farmers rely on human resources rather than machines [8][9][10].

2.3. Small-Scale Poultry Farms

Several small-scale poultry farms are widely distributed in developing countries. The general problems for small-scale poultry farming in developing countries are summarized in Figure 3.

Animals 12 00644 g003 550
Figure 3. Problems for small-scale poultry farming in developing countries, adapted after [21].
The severe negative impact on small-scale production in developing countries can be attributed to the following factors [10]:
(i) Lockdown harmed small-scale production severely because small-scale producers in developing countries rely more on labor than machinery.
(ii) Most small-scale-producing farms, including poultry farms, operate informally and, therefore, are excluded from the stimulus plans offered by governments to private businesses. Smallholder poultry producers mostly live in rural areas (sell eggs and live birds and purchase day-old chicks, feed, drugs, and disinfectants) [33]. However, the animal husbandry services were severely interrupted due to lockdown and movement restrictions. Because most small-scale poultry farms are unregistered, they are not eligible for government stimulus programs [34].
(iii) Compared with large-scale production, small farmers earn fewer benefits due to increased production expenses [35][36], and they are reliant on the local dealers for feeds, medications, and operating capital [36][37][38].
(iv) The implementation of sanitary measures in small-scale farms is difficult due to the lack of logistical and financial resources [39], making them more vulnerable to other infections.
Therefore, it is recommended to enhance the preparedness and resilience of small-scale poultry production systems in developing countries to tackle future pandemics.

3. Prospective to Improve Poultry Husbandry under COVID-19 Pandemic

Creating techniques that will help boost nutrition and food security is essential while simultaneously containing COVID-19 in African countries and handling significant socioeconomic problems [35]. Moreover, these techniques could also be applied to many Asian countries. The global spread of COVID-19 forced the imposition of self-isolation and physical distance to reduce the transmission risk and ensure human safety. The medical facilities and positive human responses were of particular concern; however, there are growing concerns about the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on the food chain due to the lockdown of borders, seaports, and airports, its consequences on food security, and its influences on the poultry sector [19][40]. In the post-COVID-19 period, the policy of adapting backyard poultry as an alternative source of income not only increases poultry production but also ensures the availability of animal protein to the poorer sections of society, improves their purchasing power, and protects against labor “reverse migration” [41]. Small-scale poultry farmers may play a key role in supplying the demand for animal products in emerging markets. Several initiatives to give marginal farmers chicks, feed, and medicine were launched by the government and private organizations in India, Bangladesh, and Cambodia during the lockdown to reduce the catastrophic effect of COVID-19 on the agricultural economy [21].
The One Health concept integrates human, environmental, and animal health to regulate and prevent disease outbreaks [42][43][44]. The proliferation of the novel coronavirus created great health hazards to both humans and animals at various times, resulting in significant economic losses and environmental damage [45][46][21][40][47]. Chickens, ducks, and pigs are resistant to the SARS-CoV-2 virus or have a low vulnerability to this unique virus. However, many COVID-19 outbreaks have been reported in several countries in association with meat and poultry processing plants [48]. Due to the transmission of infectious agents outside workplaces to family and contacts of workers, the detection of hazard variables particular to meat-packing plants may aid in developing customized control programs in this business, which exemplifies the personal connection between workplace safety and public health.
According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 4913 cases with 20 deaths have been reported in different meat and poultry processing units [49]. It is recommended that all employees and supervisors should get regular training on infection control, workplace safety, and health tailored to their reading levels and chosen languages. The training should cover the following points: what employees should do if they feel sick before or at work; COVID-19 symptoms; sick leave regulations; social distance guidelines; proper use of PPE and face shield; sanitation facilities; application for screening when it becomes more readily accessible; possible transmission routes at work and elsewhere. Culturally competent trainers should deliver training in a context social distance is maintained and in the dialects used by employees and pay attention to the different levels of education [50].
When workers in poultry processing plants tested positive for COVID-19, public health officials suspended the plant for ten days. Those who have been identified as cases or close contacts have been told to self-isolate. According to the Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA), there is no evidence that food is a common cause or route of viral transmission. No reports have yet linked the spread of COVID-19 to food or packaged food. As a result, there is no need to recall chicken products distributed by this plant [51]. Meat-packing facilities, abattoirs, and processing plants are at high risk of transmission of COVID-19. They are depicted as major sources of regional epidemics and, on rare occasions, as a critical source of a nationwide epidemic when the disease was otherwise under control. The identified danger to meat and poultry facility operations, part of the national reaction to COVID-19, necessitates immediate action to reduce worker risks and protect facility performance and the food chain. Cooperative management is necessary to minimize workplace hazards, enhance cleanliness and sanitation, and apply operating procedures and source control in poultry processing plants, which may help reduce the incidence of COVID-19 among employees. The following items are recommended during food processing: (1) applying soap and water on both hands for at least 20 s; (2) cleaning and sanitizing surfaces regularly; (3) thoroughly cooking the meat; (4) minimizing the risk of cross-contamination between cooked and raw foods.

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