The severe negative impact on small-scale production in developing countries can be attributed to the following factors
[10]:
(i) Lockdown harmed small-scale production severely because small-scale producers in developing countries rely more on labor than machinery.
(ii) Most small-scale-producing farms, including poultry farms, operate informally and, therefore, are excluded from the stimulus plans offered by governments to private businesses. Smallholder poultry producers mostly live in rural areas (sell eggs and live birds and purchase day-old chicks, feed, drugs, and disinfectants)
[33]. However, the animal husbandry services were severely interrupted due to lockdown and movement restrictions. Because most small-scale poultry farms are unregistered, they are not eligible for government stimulus programs
[34].
(iii) Compared with large-scale production, small farmers earn fewer benefits due to increased production expenses
[35][36], and they are reliant on the local dealers for feeds, medications, and operating capital
[36][37][38].
(iv) The implementation of sanitary measures in small-scale farms is difficult due to the lack of logistical and financial resources
[39], making them more vulnerable to other infections.
Therefore, it is recommended to enhance the preparedness and resilience of small-scale poultry production systems in developing countries to tackle future pandemics.
3. Prospective to Improve Poultry Husbandry under COVID-19 Pandemic
Creating techniques that will help boost nutrition and food security is essential while simultaneously containing COVID-19 in African countries and handling significant socioeconomic problems
[35]. Moreover, these techniques could also be applied to many Asian countries. The global spread of COVID-19 forced the imposition of self-isolation and physical distance to reduce the transmission risk and ensure human safety. The medical facilities and positive human responses were of particular concern; however, there are growing concerns about the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on the food chain due to the lockdown of borders, seaports, and airports, its consequences on food security, and its influences on the poultry sector
[19][40]. In the post-COVID-19 period, the policy of adapting backyard poultry as an alternative source of income not only increases poultry production but also ensures the availability of animal protein to the poorer sections of society, improves their purchasing power, and protects against labor “reverse migration”
[41]. Small-scale poultry farmers may play a key role in supplying the demand for animal products in emerging markets. Several initiatives to give marginal farmers chicks, feed, and medicine were launched by the government and private organizations in India, Bangladesh, and Cambodia during the lockdown to reduce the catastrophic effect of COVID-19 on the agricultural economy
[21].
The One Health concept integrates human, environmental, and animal health to regulate and prevent disease outbreaks
[42][43][44]. The proliferation of the novel coronavirus created great health hazards to both humans and animals at various times, resulting in significant economic losses and environmental damage
[45][46][21][40][47]. Chickens, ducks, and pigs are resistant to the SARS-CoV-2 virus or have a low vulnerability to this unique virus. However, many COVID-19 outbreaks have been reported in several countries in association with meat and poultry processing plants
[48]. Due to the transmission of infectious agents outside workplaces to family and contacts of workers, the detection of hazard variables particular to meat-packing plants may aid in developing customized control programs in this business, which exemplifies the personal connection between workplace safety and public health.
According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 4913 cases with 20 deaths have been reported in different meat and poultry processing units
[49]. It is recommended that all employees and supervisors should get regular training on infection control, workplace safety, and health tailored to their reading levels and chosen languages. The training should cover the following points: what employees should do if they feel sick before or at work; COVID-19 symptoms; sick leave regulations; social distance guidelines; proper use of PPE and face shield; sanitation facilities; application for screening when it becomes more readily accessible; possible transmission routes at work and elsewhere. Culturally competent trainers should deliver training in a context social distance is maintained and in the dialects used by employees and pay attention to the different levels of education
[50].
When workers in poultry processing plants tested positive for COVID-19, public health officials suspended the plant for ten days. Those who have been identified as cases or close contacts have been told to self-isolate. According to the Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA), there is no evidence that food is a common cause or route of viral transmission. No reports have yet linked the spread of COVID-19 to food or packaged food. As a result, there is no need to recall chicken products distributed by this plant
[51]. Meat-packing facilities, abattoirs, and processing plants are at high risk of transmission of COVID-19. They are depicted as major sources of regional epidemics and, on rare occasions, as a critical source of a nationwide epidemic when the disease was otherwise under control. The identified danger to meat and poultry facility operations, part of the national reaction to COVID-19, necessitates immediate action to reduce worker risks and protect facility performance and the food chain. Cooperative management is necessary to minimize workplace hazards, enhance cleanliness and sanitation, and apply operating procedures and source control in poultry processing plants, which may help reduce the incidence of COVID-19 among employees. The following items are recommended during food processing: (1) applying soap and water on both hands for at least 20 s; (2) cleaning and sanitizing surfaces regularly; (3) thoroughly cooking the meat; (4) minimizing the risk of cross-contamination between cooked and raw foods.