The cosmetic industry uses the term ‘cosmeceutical’ to refer to a cosmetic formula that has drug-like applicative advantages. Many marine algae are rich in biologically active components that have been reported to exhibit strong benefits to the skin, mainly for photoprotection, skin whitening, moisturization, anti-aging, anti-wrinkle, antioxidants, and antimicrobial uses.
1. Introduction
In cosmeceuticals, cosmetic products are a topical combination of cosmetic and pharmaceutical with bioactive molecules to have medicinal or drug-like applications to improve health and texture of skin
[1][2]. Due to modernization and skin care attention, cosmetic companies are enlarging gradually each year worldwide. To fulfill the requirements of customers, these cosmetic companies are moving towards unbeatable exploitation of synthetic cosmetics and constituents. Due to the ineffectiveness of synthetic components, it may cumulate in skin and produce toxic effects and may cause harm to healthy skin structure. Hydroxybenzoic acid esters (parabens) reported its adverse effect to the skin as well as increase incidence of malignant melanoma and breast cancer since it is widely used in cosmetic formulations
[3]. Another substance is phthalate, which is highly found in different cosmetic formulations that can cause DNA mutations and damage, as found in human male gamete
[4][5]. Some of these synthetic chemical compounds can cause detrimental effects in animals such as reduction of sperm counts, changed pregnancy outcomes, congenital disabilities of male genitalia, etc.
[6]. As a result, users have changed their liking and selected natural cosmetic products for usage
[7]. Hence, the enlarging market for skincare formulations and constant look for an alternative natural constituents led to the production of a different types of cosmeceutical skin products
[8].
Marine macroalgae (seaweeds) are macroscopic, multicellular, eukaryotic organisms that can perform photosynthesis due to presence of Chlorophyll and some other photosynthetic pigments. They are widely distributed along the coastal line (the intertidal and sub-tidal regions) and in brackish water
[9]. Based on pigment composition, they can be classified into three types. Brown alga belongs to Ochrophyta phylum (Phaeophyceae class), red alga belongs to Rhodophyta phylum, and green alga belongs to Chlorophyta phylum. Among these three types, brown algae belong to the Chromista kingdom, whereas green and red algae belong to the Plantae kingdom
[9][10]. Seaweeds have a more highly diversified bioactive constituents than terrestrial organisms
[11]. These bioactive compounds have a wide range of biological activities which can be used in product preparation as an ingredient
[12][13]. The applications of macroalgae in cosmeceutical formulations depends on their constituents (such as polysaccharides, carbohydrate derivatives, proteins, peptides, amino acids, phenolic compounds, vitamins, minerals, fatty acids, pigments, etc.)
[14][15]. Many previous findings have reported the role of seaweed based bioactive compounds which offer antitumor, antiallergic, antimicrobial, antioxidant, antiinflammation, antilipidemic activity, antiwrinkle, anti-aging, moisturizing, and photoprotection activities
[5][14][16][17][18].
For the preparation of cosmeceutical products, macroalgae-derived compounds have been noted as being of significant importance [19]. Polysaccharides have a great role in cosmetics including in moisturizers, emulsifiers, wound healing agents, and thickening agents [20]. Fernando et al. [21] have reported anti-inflammation activity of Fucoidan from Chnoospora minima (Phaeophyceae) by inhibition of Lipopolysaccharides induced nitric oxide production, inducible nitric oxide productions, Cyclooxygenase-2, and Prostaglandin E2 levels in an experimental study by targeting RAW macrophages. Likewise, Ariede et al. [22], Wang et al. [23], and Teas and Irhimeh, [24] reported beneficial activities of Fucus vesiculosus (Figure 1a) (Phaeophyceae) derived polysaccharides such as anti-aging, anti-melanogenic, anti-cancer, and antioxidant activity by stimulating collagen production, tyrosinase inhibition, decreasing melanoma growth and by preventing oxidation formation, respectively. In addition, the anti-inflammation activity of sulphated polysaccharide from Padina tetrastromatica (Phaeophyceae) by COX-2 and iNOS inhibitions in an experimental model of Paw edema in rats [25]. Moreover, Khan et al. [26] reported the anti-inflammation activity of polyunsaturated fatty acids derived from Undaria pinnatifida (Figure 1b) (Phaeophyceae) on mouse ear edema and erythema. In vitro, the antioxidant activity of methanolic extracts from Osmundaria obtusilo and Palisada flagellifera (Rhodophyta) was studied by DPPH, ABTS, metal chelating, Folin ciocalteau, and beta-carotene bleaching assays [27][28]. Phenolic compound Sargachromanol E revealed antiaging activities from Sargassum horneri (Phaeophyceae) by inhibition of matric metalloprotein expression on UVA irradiated dermal fibroblast [29].
Figure 1. Seaweed species images: (a)—Fucus vesiculosus (P); (b)—Undaria pinnatifida (P); (c)—Schizymenia dubyi (R); (d)—Ulva linza (C); (e)—Bryopsis plumosa (C); (f)—Laminaria digitata (P); (g)—Palmaria palmata (R); (h)—Himanthalia elongata (P); (i)—Porphyra umbilicalis (R); (j)—Jania rubens (R); (k)—Gracilaria gracilis (R); (l)—Ceramium virgatum (R); (m)—Kappaphycus alvarezii (R); (n)—Ulva lactuca (C); (o)—Ascophyllum nodosum (P); (p)—Eucheuma denticulatum (R); C—Chlorophyta; R—Rhodophyta; P—Phaeophyceae; Scale = 1 cm.
3. Polysaccharides
Marine macroalgae derived polysaccharides are well known for their biological benefits. The presence of polysaccharides (ulvan, fucoidan, alginate, laminarin, carrageenan, sulphated polysaccharides, agar, and agarose) in macroalgae and noted their cosmeceutical benefits. Other examples of macroalgae derived polysaccharides and their cosmetic benefits are presented in Table 1.
Table 1. Application of macroalgae derived polysaccharides in skin cosmetics.
SP, Sulphated Polysaccharides; C, Chlorophyta; R, Rhodophyta; P, Phaeophyceae; * Microalgae.
4. Amino Acids
Protein is considered a macromolecule and polymer of amino acids. Pereira
[67] reported the role of amino acids as a natural moisturizing factor that prevents water loss in the skin. Marine macroalgae are a satisfactory resource of various amino acids, such as glycine, alanine, valine, leucine, proline, arginine, serine, histidine, tyrosine, and some other mycosporine amino acids (MAAs). Marine macroalgae derived peptides and amino acids and its skin cosmetic benefits are illustrated in
Table 2. In cosmeceutical products, amino acids usually function as a hydrating agent as a natural moisturizing factor in human skin
[73].
Table 2. Applications of macroalgae derived peptides and amino acids in skin cosmetics.
C, Chlorophyta; R, Rhodophyta; P, Phaeophyceae.
5. Pigments
Marine macroalgae have a broad diversity of photosynthetic pigments that capture light for the photosynthesis process. Chlorophyta (green algae) contain chlorophyll
a, chlorophyll
b, and carotenoids; Rhodophyta (red algae) contain chlorophyll a, phycobilin (phycocyanin, phycoerythrin), and carotenoids (carotene, lutein, zeaxanthin), and Phaeophyceae (brown algae) contain chlorophyll
a, chlorophyll
c, fucoxanthin, and different carotenoid pigments. Different macroalgae-derived pigments and cosmetic applications are reported in
Table 3. These pigments provide a shield to the skin cells against harmful UV radiations
[99].
Table 3. Applications of macroalgae derived pigments in skin cosmetics.
C, Chlorophyta; R, Rhodophyta; P, Phaeophyceae.
6. Phenolic Compounds
Phenolic compounds are one of the secondary metabolites that make an important group of components for skin cosmetic benefits. Due to wide varieties of biological actions, they can be incorporated in various skin cosmetic preparations. Theyr can be categorized into simple phenolic compounds and polyphenols, comprising bromophenols, phlorotannins, flavonoids, terpenoids, etc.
[122]. Marine macroalgae0derived phenolic compounds and their cosmetic benefits are presented in
Table 4.
Table 4. Applications of macroalgae derived phenolic compounds in skin cosmetics.
C, Chlorophyta; R, Rhodophyta; P, Phaeophyceae.
7. Fatty Acids
Seaweeds are well known for various types of fatty acids such as glycolipids, triglycerides, sterols, and phospholipids. The chemical structures of marine algae derived fatty acids are illustrated in Figure 7. These have been reported as being higher in seaweed as compared to terrestrial plants. Different types of fatty acids from different macroalgae and its cosmetic benefits are presented in Table 5.
Table 5. Applications of macroalgae derived lipids and fatty acids in skin cosmetics.
C, Chlorophyta; R, Rhodophyta; P, Phaeophyceae.
8. Minerals
Depending on the environment in which macroalgae inhabit, they are highly diversified in mineral composition (especially with regards to trace elements including zinc, magnesium, aluminum, silica, copper, iodine, selenium, iron, manganese, and micronutrients including calcium, sodium, phosphorus, potassium, and chlorine).
Minerals have a very essential vital role as cofactors of different metalloenzymes
[168]. Moreover, a combination of calcium and magnesium improves barrier repairs in topical skincare products
[169]. Indeed, acid-induced burns are relieved by gel solution containing calcium gluconate solution
[170]. Likewise, magnesium silicate (talc) and magnesium sulphate (i.e., Epsom salts) have reported enhancement of skin benefits. Talc is most frequently useful in baby skin powders to prevent diaper rash. In adults, it can be used as a lubricant and to reduce wetness in the perineal and axillary areas
[171]. In addition, Boisseau et al.
[172] found improvements in skin softness and exfoliation, relief in muscle tension, and the promotion of relaxation by Epsom salts. They also reported the key regulatory role of Mg
++ and Ca
++ in the proliferation and differentiation of keratinocytes. Likewise, magnesium silicate (talc) and magnesium sulphate (Epsom salts) have reported enhancement of skin benefits.
Talc is most frequently useful in baby skin powders to prevent diaper rash as well as in adults to reduce wetness in the perineal and axilla areas (and as a lubricant)
[173]. They also reported the key regulatory role of Mg
++ and Ca
++ in the proliferation and differentiation of keratinocytes. ZnO-based skin protectants are cost-effective, easily formulated, and stable under aerobic conditions
[173][174]. Zinc oxide is superior to zinc sulphate to mitigate inflammation and enhance re-epithelization of partial-thickness porcine skin
[175]. Due to low water solubility, it sustains in the skin at the wound site. Newman et al.
[176] revealed the importance of skin in sunburned skin and under ultraviolet exposure. Bissett et al.
[177] found significantly delayed UV-induced tumors in Guinea pigs and mouse models by topical use of a 2-furildioxime (iron chelator).
9. Summary
Macroalgae are a valuable resource of bioactive components, with scientific evidence revealing their benefits for safer use in humans and wellbeing. Marine algae-derived molecules showed biological effects on the skin, such as skin whitening, antiaging, antiwrinkle, photoprotection, moisturizing, and collagen-boosting, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, anticellulite, antiviral, and anticancer activities. Moreover, many cosmeceutical companies already use marine algae extracts and have derived compounds from these extracts in their formulations. However, the biochemical profile monitoring of macroalgae presents a problem that industries need to overcome. The development of its cultivation and sustainable methods of extraction procedures shows the significant key for this confined, which is being analyzed with noteworthy benefits. However, more detail analysis requires to understand the exact mechanism of some compounds since some compounds have not been fully explored. Therefore, the further analysis and evaluation are essential to improve the quality of cosmetic formulations which will be useful to enhance consumers safety.