Figure 1. Seaweed species images: (
a)—Fucus vesiculosus (P); (
b)—Undaria pinnatifida (P); (
c)—Schizymenia dubyi (R); (
d)—Ulva linza (C); (
e)—Bryopsis plumosa (C); (
f)—Laminaria digitata (P); (
g)—Palmaria palmata (R); (
h)—Himanthalia elongata (P); (
i)—Porphyra umbilicalis (R); (
j)—Jania rubens (R); (
k)—Gracilaria gracilis (R); (
l)—Ceramium virgatum (R); (
m)—Kappaphycus alvarezii (R); (
n)—Ulva lactuca (C); (
o)—Ascophyllum nodosum (P); (
p)—Eucheuma denticulatum (R); C—Chlorophyta; R—Rhodophyta; P—Phaeophyceae; Scale = 1 cm.
3. Polysaccharides
Marine macroalgae derived polysaccharides are well known for their biological benefits. The presence of polysaccharides (ulvan, fucoidan, alginate, laminarin, carrageenan, sulphated polysaccharides, agar, and agarose) in macroalgae and noted their cosmeceutical benefits. Other examples of macroalgae derived polysaccharides and their cosmetic benefits are presented in Table 1.
Table 1. Application of macroalgae derived polysaccharides in skin cosmetics.
Laminarin, Alginate, Fucoidan |
Antioxidant |
[ |
72 |
] |
SP, Sulphated Polysaccharides; C, Chlorophyta; R, Rhodophyta; P, Phaeophyceae; * Microalgae.
4. Amino Acids
Protein is considered a macromolecule and polymer of amino acids. Pereira
[67] reported the role of amino acids as a natural moisturizing factor that prevents water loss in the skin. Marine macroalgae are a satisfactory resource of various amino acids, such as glycine, alanine, valine, leucine, proline, arginine, serine, histidine, tyrosine, and some other mycosporine amino acids (MAAs). Marine macroalgae derived peptides and amino acids and its skin cosmetic benefits are illustrated in
Table 2. In cosmeceutical products, amino acids usually function as a hydrating agent as a natural moisturizing factor in human skin
[73].
Table 2. Applications of macroalgae derived peptides and amino acids in skin cosmetics.
No. |
Name of Macroalgae |
Compounds |
Cosmetic Benefits |
References |
1 |
, chlorophyll
b, and carotenoids; Rhodophyta (red algae) contain chlorophyll a, phycobilin (phycocyanin, phycoerythrin), and carotenoids (carotene, lutein, zeaxanthin), and Phaeophyceae (brown algae) contain chlorophyll
a, chlorophyll
c, fucoxanthin, and different carotenoid pigments. Different macroalgae-derived pigments and cosmetic applications are reported in
Table 3. These pigments provide a shield to the skin cells against harmful UV radiations
[99].
Table 3. Applications of macroalgae derived pigments in skin cosmetics.
No. |
Name of Macroalgae |
Pigment |
Cosmetic Benefits |
References |
Scytosiphon lomentaria | (P) |
1 |
Sargassum | Amino acids |
spp. | Antioxidant, Radical scavengers, Chelators |
[74][75][ |
Carotenoids, Astaxanthin, Beta-carotene, Fucoxanthin | 76] |
Anticellulite, Antiaging, Antiphotoaging, antioxidant, antiviral |
[ | 100 | ] |
2 |
Gracilaria vermiculophylla (R) |
Phenolic compounds are one of the secondary metabolites that make an important group of components for skin cosmetic benefits. Due to wide varieties of biological actions, they can be incorporated in various skin cosmetic preparations. Theyr can be categorized into simple phenolic compounds and polyphenols, comprising bromophenols, phlorotannins, flavonoids, terpenoids, etc.
[122]. Marine macroalgae0derived phenolic compounds and their cosmetic benefits are presented in
Table 4.
Table 4.
Applications of macroalgae derived phenolic compounds in skin cosmetics.
No. |
Name of Macroalgae |
Phenolic Compound/s |
Characterization or Analysis of Phenolic Compounds |
References |
1 |
Macrocystis pyrifera (P) |
Phlorotannins, Phloroeckol, Tetrameric phloroglucinol |
Antioxidant, Antidiabetic, Antiaging |
[123] |
Porphyra-334, Palythine, Asterina-330, Shinorine |
Antioxidant, UV protector |
2 |
Saccharina japonica |
2 | (P) |
Ascophyllum nodosum
Fucoxanthin |
Ascophyllum nodosum
(Inhibition of tyrosinase and Melanogenesis in UVB irradiated |
Figure 1o) (Figure 1o) (P)P) | [[101] |
Ascophyllan |
MMP inhibition | 77 | ] |
[ |
. Fatty Acids
Seaweeds are well known for various types of fatty acids such as glycolipids, triglycerides, sterols, and phospholipids. The chemical structures of marine algae derived fatty acids are illustrated in
Figure 7. These have been reported as being higher in seaweed as compared to terrestrial plants. Different types of fatty acids from different macroalgae and its cosmetic benefits are presented in
Table 5.
Table 5.
Applications of macroalgae derived lipids and fatty acids in skin cosmetics.
No. |
Name of Macroalgae |
Fatty acid |
Cosmetic Benefits |
References |
1 |
Chondrus crispus
Chondrus crispus
(Figure 3b) (R) |
EPA, AA, DHA, GLA, LA, Palmitic acid, Oleic acid |
Antiallergic, Anti-aging, Anti-inflammation, Antiwrinkle, Antimicrobial, Emollients, |
[154] |
2 |
Undaria pinnatifida
Undaria pinnatifida
(Figure 1b) (Figure 1 | 124 | ] |
b) (P)P) |
PUFA |
3 |
Ulva lactuca (Figure 1n) (C),
Asparagopsis armata (R) |
3 |
(Figure 3c) (R) |
MAAs, Amino acids |
Antiaging, Anti wrinkles, Improves collagen formation |
Cladosiphon okamuranus (P) | [ |
Fucoxanthin | 78] |
Antioxidant, DPPH inhibition |
4 |
Pelvetia canaliculata
(P)Figure 3d) (P) |
Amino acids |
Antioxidant, Collagen formation, Proteoglycan’s synthesis |
[79] |
[ |
5 |
Gracilaria chilensis, Pyropia plicata, Champia novae-zelandiae (R) |
MAAs |
Anti UV, Antioxidant |
[80] |
102 |
6 |
Ulva lactuca
(Figure 1n) (C) |
Arginine, Aspartic acid, Glycine |
Enhance collagen and elastin synthesis |
[80] |
7 |
Porphyra umbilicalis
(Figure 1i) (R) |
MAAs, (2:1 ratio of Porphyra-334 and Shinorine) |
Antiaging |
[81] |
8 |
Palmaria palmata
(Figure 1g),
Catenella caespitosa (R) |
MAAs |
UV and UV-A protection |
[82] |
9 |
Porphyra sp.,
Catenella caespitosa (R), Padina crassa, Desmarestia aculeata (P) |
MAAs such as Aminocyclohexenone-type, Aminocyclohexene imine-type |
Photoprotection, Antiaging, Anti-inflammatory, Antioxidant |
[83] |
] |
Anti-inflammatory |
[ | 154 | ] |
3 |
Cystoseira foeniculacea (P) |
Polyphenol |
Antioxidant |
[125] |
3 |
Ulva lactuca
Ulva lactuca
(Figure 1n) (Figure 1n) (P)P) |
Fatty acid such as C18 and C16 type |
In-vitro and in-vivo Nrf2-ARE activation, Cell protective, Antioxidant |
[155] |
4 |
Neopyropia yezoensis® |
Phycoerythrin |
Antioxidant, Anticancer, Antiinflammatory |
4 |
Phaeophyceae
(Brown algae) (P) | [ | 103 | ] |
4 |
Stephanocystis hakodatensis (P) |
Phenol |
Antioxidant |
[ |
Unsaturated Fatty acids126] |
Antioxidant |
[156] |
5 |
Gracilaria gracilis, Porpyridium sp. (R) |
Phycobiliprotein pigment such as R-phycoerythrin, Phycocyanin, Allophycocyanins |
Antioxidant, Skin whitening activity by Antimelanogenic activity |
[104] |
5 |
Ecklonia cava subsp. Stolonifera (P) |
Fucofuroeckol-A |
Protection against UVB radiation |
[127] |
5 |
Ulva lactuca
Ulva lactuca
(Figure 1n) (Figure 1n) (P)P) |
Lipopeptides |
Inhibition of elastase, enhance collagen synthesis |
[157] |
6 |
Cladophora glomera®(C) |
Chlorophyll a, Chlorophyll b, Chlorophyll c, Chlorophyll d |
Antibacterial, Antioxidant, Colorants, Deodorizer |
[105][106][107] |
7 |
Corallina pilulifera (R) |
6 |
Himanthalia elongata
Himanthalia elongata
| Phlorotannins |
(Figure 1h) Antiaging, antiinflammatio, antioxidants, antiallergic, UV screens |
(Figure 1h) (P)P)[128] |
Fatty acids and volatile compounds |
7 |
Portieri®p. (R) |
Phycobiliproteins, Phycoerythrin, Phycocyanin |
Antioxidants, anti-inflammatory, Colorants, Radical scavenger |
[107] |
8 |
Ishige foliacea (P) |
Phlorotannin |
Antimelanogenic, inhibition of tyrosinase and melanin synthesis |
[129][130] |
8 |
Cladophora glomerata (C) |
10 |
Laminaria ochroleuca
Laminaria ochroleuca
( | Chlorophyll |
Figure 3f) (P)Tissue growth stimulators |
Polyphenol[108] |
Antioxidant, Antimicrobial |
[ |
Antioxidant |
[ | 131] |
9 |
Neopyropia y®ensis |
11 | (R) |
Porphyran |
Antioxidant, Anti-inflammatory |
Caulerpa racemo®(C)[109] |
Flavonoids, Hydroquinone, Saponins |
Tyrosinase inhibitor |
[ | 132 | ] |
10 |
Curdiea racovitzae, Iridaea cordata (R) |
Palythine, asterina-330 |
Antioxidant, Anti-UV, Antiaging |
[84] |
10 |
U® lactuca (C) |
Carotenoids such as astaxanthin, beta-carotene, fucoxanthin, lutein |
Anti-inflammatory, Antiaging, Tyrosinase inhibition, Antioxidants, Photoprotective |
[106] |
12 |
Ecklonia cava (P) |
Dioxinodehydroeckol |
UV B protective |
[133] |
11 |
Porphyra sp. (R) |
Protein and hydrolysates |
Moisture retention capacity and viscosifying agent |
11 |
Rhodophyta (R) | [85][86] |
Lutein |
Skin whitening |
13 |
Ecklonia cava subsp. stolonifera (P) | [ | 110 | ] |
Phlorotannins |
Inhibition of Matric metalloproteins (MMPs), Antiwrinkle, Tyrosinase inhibitor, Skin whitener |
[ | 134 | ] |
12 |
Palmaria sp., Porphyra sp. (R) |
High amounts of Glycine and Arginine |
Natural moisturizing factor |
[87] |
12 |
Paraglossum lancifolium (R) |
Lipid soluble pigments such as Xanthophyll and Carotenoids
Beta-carotene, Lutein |
Antioxidant, Anti-inflammatory, Antiphotoaging, Photoprotection, Anti-photoaging |
[111] |
13 |
Chondrus crispus, |
14 |
Saccharina latissimaSaccharina latissima (Figure 3g) (P) |
Phenol |
Antioxidant |
[135] |
Mastocarpus stellatus(Figure 3b), PMalmaria palmata stocarpus stellatus (Figure 1g3e |
13 | ), (R)Palmaria palmata (Figure 1g) (R) |
Undaria pinnatifida | Palythine, Usujirene, Porphyra-334, Shinorine, Asterina, palythinol |
(P) | Antioxidant, Anti-proliferation |
[88] |
Fucoxanthin |
Photoprotective |
[ | 112 | ] |
14 |
Pelvetia canaliculata
(P)Figure 3d) (P) |
Amino acids |
Antioxidant, Collagen synthesis, Proteoglycan synthesis stimulation |
[89] |
15 |
14 |
Porphyra sp. (P) |
Laminaria digitata (Figure 1f) (P) |
Proteins |
Lipolytic |
[90] |
16 |
Neopyropia yezoensis (R) |
Peptide PPy1 |
Anti-inflammatory |
[91] |
17 |
Palmaria palmata
(Figure 1g) (R) |
MAAs |
UV protector |
[92] |
18 |
Sargassum polycystum (P) |
Amino acids and amines |
Anti-melanogenic or skin whitening effect |
[93][94][95] |
19 |
Porphyra umbilicalis
(Figure 1i) (R) |
Porphyra-334, Shinorine |
Moisturization, Skin protector, Antiwrinkle, Protect against roughness |
[96] |
21 |
Porphyra yezoensis f. coreana (R) |
Peptides, PYP1-5, porphyra-334 |
Enhance Elastin and collagen formation, reduce MMP expression |
[96] |
158 | ] |
7 |
Porphyridium purpureum (R) |
Eicosapentaenoic acid, Docosahexaenoic acid, Eicosatetraenoic acid, Polyunsaturated omega-3 fatty acids |
Antioxidant, Anti-inflammatory, Anti-photoaging |
[159] |
8 |
Ulva rigidaUlva rigida (Figure 3m) (C), Gracilaria sp. (RGracilaria sp. (R), Fucus vesiculosus (Figure 1a), Fucus vesiculosus Saccharina latissima
(Figure 1a3g), Saccharina latissima
(P)(P) |
Lipidic profile |
Antioxidant |
[160] |
9 |
Sargassum fusiforme (P) |
Fucosterol |
Protection against photodamage, UVB protector, MMP inhibition, Enhance procollagen formation, Anti-inflammatory |
[161][162] |
10 |
Gracilariopsis longissima (R), Saccharina japonica (P) |
Anti-inflammatory |
[ | 163] |
15 |
11 |
Silvetia siliquosa (P) |
Fucosterol |
Antioxidant, Stimulate antioxidant enzymes such as catalase, glutathione peroxidase |
[164][165] |
Ecklonia cava (P) |
Dieckol |
14 |
Sargassum fusiforme (P) |
Fucosterol |
Anti-aging, MMP inhibition |
[166] |
Anti-adipogenesis |
[ |
15 |
Codium fragile (C) |
Sterol |
Anti-inflammatory |
[Zeaxanthin, Alpha and beta carotene |
Anti-inflammatory, Photoprotection, Antioxidant, Antiaging |
[113] |
(8E)-10-oxo-8-octadecenoic acid, (E)-9-oxo-10-octadecenoic acid, Myristic acid, Palmitic acid |
136 | ] | 167 | ] |
16 |
Ecklonia cava subsp. kurome (P) |
Phlorotannin |
Anti-inflammatory, Hyaluronidase inhibition |
[137] |
15 |
Gracilaria gracilis ( |
17 | Figure 1k) (R) |
CaulerpPhycobiliproteins (R-phycoerythrin allophycocyanin, Phycocyanin) |
®Antioxidant |
[104] |
p. (C) |
Flavonoids, Phenols |
Tyrosinase inhibitors |
[ | 138] |
16 |
Sargassum siliquastrum (P) |
Fucoxanthin |
Skin protector, Antiphotoaging, Antiwrinkle |
[114 |
18 |
Rhodomela conf®oides (R) | ] |
Polyphenol, Bromophenol |
Antioxidant, Antimicrobial, DPPH inhibition |
[ | 139 | ] |
17 |
Ulva lactuca (C) |
Zeaxanthin, Neoxanthin, Antheraxanthin, Siphonein, Siphoxanthin, |
Photoprotection, Antiphotoaging, Anti-inflammatory |
19 |
Eisenia bicyclis, Ecklonia Cava subsp. stolonifera (P) | [ |
Eckol | 115] |
Anti-inflammation, Skin whitening activity |
[ | 140 | ] | [141 |
18 |
Himanthalia elongata (P) |
Fucoxanthin extract |
Antioxidant |
[116] |
19 |
Ascophyllum nodosum (P) |
Fucoxanthin |
Antiagin, Antiwrinkle |
[117] |
] |
20 |
Schizymenia dubyi Schizymenia dubyi (Figure 1c) (Figure 1c) (R)R) |
Phenol |
Anti-melanogenic, Tyrosinase inhibition |
[142] |
21 |
Cystoseira compressa
Cystoseira compressa
(Figure 3h) (P) |
Fuhalol |
Antioxidant |
[143] |
20 |
Fucus vesiculosus (P) |
Fucoxanthin |
| Antioxidant |
Cystoseira compressa
Cystoseira compressa
(Figure 3h) (P) | [ |
Fuhalol118] |
Antioxidant |
[ | 143 | ] |
22 |
Palmaria palmata (Figure 1g), Porphyra umbilicalis
(Figure 1i) (R) |
MAAs |
Antiaging, Collagenase inhibition |
[97][98] |
21 |
Phaeophyta |
22 |
Ecklonia cava (P) |
Fucoxanthin |
Antiphotoaging |
[ |
119 |
] |
dieckol |
Promotes hair growth |
[ | 144 | ] |
22 |
Sargassum siliquastrum (P) |
Fucoxanthin |
Anti-melanogenic (skin whitening effect), Antioxidant, Anti-inflammatory |
[120] |
23 |
Fucus vesiculosusFucus vesiculosus (Figure 1a), Gongolaria nodicaulis (Figure 1a3i), Ericaria Gongolaria nodicaulisselaginoides (Figure 3j), Ericaria selaginoidesGongolaria usneoides (Figure 3k), Gongolaria usneoides, Ecklonia cava (P)Ecklonia cava (P) |
Phlorotannins such as Fucophloroethol, Fucodiphloroethol, Fucotripholoroethol, Phlorofucofuroeckol bieckol or dieckol |
Skin whitening effect, Antioxidant, Anti-inflammatory, Antihistamine, Photoprotection |
[ |
23 |
Gelidium crinale (R) |
Carotenoids |
Antioxidant |
[121] |
C, Chlorophyta; R, Rhodophyta; P, Phaeophyceae.
145 |
] |
24 |
Ascophyllum nodosum |
|
Ascophyllum nodosum |
|
( |
Figure 1 |
o) |
( |
Figure 1 |
o) (P) |
P) |
Phlorotannins, Eckols, Fucols, Phlorethols |
Inhibition of tyrosinase, Anti-inflammation, Anti UV, Anti-allergic, Chelators, Antiaging, Hyaluronidase inhibitor |
[ |
145 | ] |
25 |
Meristotheca dakarensis (R) |
Glucosaminoglycan |
Anti-aging, Collagen synthesis |
[12] |
26 |
Gongolaria nodicaulisGongolaria nodicaulis,
Ericaria selaginoides,
Ericaria selaginoides,
Gongolaria usneoides (P)Gongolaria usneoides (Figure 3k) (P) |
Phlorotannins such as bioeckol, 7-phloroeckol, phlorofucofuroeckol, fucophloroethol |
Anti-inflammation, Antioxidant, Anti-aging, Inhibition of hyaluronidase |
[145] |
27 |
Fucus spiralis
Fucus spiralis
(Figure 3l) (P) |
Phlorotannins |
Inhibition of lipid peroxidation, hyaluronidase inhibitor, antiaging, antiwrinkle, Anti-inflammatory, Antiwrinkle |
[145] |
28 |
Ecklonia cava, Ecklonia cava subsp. stolonifera (P) |
Eckol, 6,6′-bieckol, doeckol, Phlorofucofuroeckol-A, 8,8′-bieckol |
Anti-allergic |
[146] |
29 |
Eisenia bicyclis, Ecklonia cava subsp. stolonifera |
Phlorofucofuroeckol A |
Hepatoprotective, Anti-tyrosinase |
[147][148] |
30 |
Eisenia arborea, Ecklonia bicyclis (P) |
Phlorotannins |
Anti-inflammation, Hyaluronidase inhibitor, antiwrinkle |
[149] |
31 |
Eisenia arborea (P) |
Phlorofucofuroeckol A |
Anti-allergic |
[150] |
32 |
Ascophyllum nodosum
(Figure 1o),
Fucus serratusAscophyllum nodosum
(Figure 1o),
Fucus serratus (Figure 3n), Himanthalia elongata (Figure 1h), Himanthalia elongata
Sargassum muticum (Figure 1h),
Sargassum muticum (P)P) |
Phlorotannins |
Antioxidant, Antibacterial, antiviral, photoprotection, Anti-inflammatory |
[151][152][153] |
33 |
Ecklonia cava (P) |
Eckols, fucols, phlorethols, Fuhalols, fucophlorethol |
Anti-aging, Anti-inflammation, Hyaluronidase inhibitor, antiallergic, UV protector |
[153] |
No. |
Name of Macroalgae |
Polysaccharides |
Cosmetic Benefits |
References |
1 |
Ulva lactuca
(Figure 1n) (C) |
SP (Ulvan) |
Antioxidant, Moisturizer, Photoprotective |
[30] |
|
Neopyropia yezoensis (R) |
Porphyran |
Antiinflammation |
[31][32] |
2 |
Porphyridium sp.* (R),
Costaria costata (P), Ulva lactuca (Figure 1n) (C) |
Sulphated polysaccharides |
Antioxidant,
Anti-inflammatory,
Antiaging |
[33] |
3 |
Fucus vesiculosus (Figure 1a) |
Fucoidans |
Antiaging, Antiwrinkle |
[34] |
4 |
Ascophyllum nododum
(Figure 1o),
Chnoospora minima,
Sargassum fusiforme,
Saccharina japonica, Sargassum polycystum,
S. vachellianum,
S. hemiphyllum (P) |
Fucoidans |
Photoprotection, Anti photoaging
Anti-inflammatory,
Anti-elastase, Anti-collagenase, Skin whitening |
[35][36][37][38] |
5 |
Fucus vesiculosus
(Figure 1a) (P) |
Fucoidan |
Anticoagulant Antioxidant, Enhancer of Skin fibroblast formation |
[39] |
6 |
Neoporphyra haitanensis (R) |
Porphyran |
Antioxidant |
[40][41] |
7 |
Saccharina longicruris (P) |
Laminaran |
Anti-inflammation, Antioxidant, Reconstruction of dermis |
[42][43] |
8 |
Saccharina longicruris (P) |
Galactofucans |
Enhance fibroblast formation, Increase synthesis of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) complex and collagen-1 |
[44] |
9 |
Eucheuma denticulatum
(Figure 1p) (R) |
Carrageenan |
Antioxidant, photoprotection |
[45] |
10 |
Gelidium sp. (R) |
Agar |
Thickener |
[46] |
11 |
Ascophyllum sp.,
Fucus sp.,
Sargassum sp., Undaria sp. (P) |
Laminaran |
Anticellulite |
[47] |
12 |
Saccharina cichorioides (P) |
Fucoidan |
Anti-atopic dermatitis |
[48] |
13 |
Corallina officinalis (R)
(Figure 3a) (R) |
Sulphated polysaccharides |
Antioxidant |
[49] |
14 |
Ulva australis (C) |
Ulvan |
Antiaging |
[50][51] |
15 |
Acanthophora muscoides (R) |
Sulphated polysaccharides-Carrageenan |
Anticoagulant, Antinociceptive, antiinflammation, Gel agents |
[52][53][54] |
17 |
Chondrus crispus (R) |
Carrageenan |
Gel and Thickening agent, Skin moisturizer |
[55] |
18 |
Ulva rigida,
(Figure 3U. pseudorotundata (C)m),
U. pseudorotundata (C) |
Sulphated polysaccharides |
Antioxidant, Chelators, Gel agents, Moisturizer |
[56] |
19 |
Ascophyllum nodosum
(Figure 1o) (P) |
Fucoidan |
Anti-inflammation, Antiviral, Antiaging, Anti elastase, Photoprotective, Tyrosinase inhibition, Anticellulite |
[57] |
20 |
Gracilaria sp. (R) |
Agar |
Thickener |
[58] |
21 |
Padina boergesenii (P) |
Sulphated polysaccharides |
Formation of collagen |
[59] |
22 |
Macrocystis sp., Lessonia sp., Laminaria sp. (P) |
Alginate |
Gelling and Stabilizing agent, Moisturizer, Chelator |
[60][61] |
24 |
Kjellmaniella crassifolia |
Fucoidan |
Antiaging, Antiwrinkle |
[62] |
25 |
Brown algae (P) |
Alginate |
Thickening agent
Gelling agent |
[63] |
27 |
Sargassum
vachellianum (P) |
Polysaccharides |
Skin moisturizer and protectors |
[64] |
28 |
Fucus vesiculosus (Figure 1a),
Laminaria digitata (Figure 1f),
Undaria pinnatifida (Figure 1b) (P) |
Fucoidan |
Antioxidant, Antiaging,
Anticoagulant, Increase skin fibroblast formulation |
[65][66] |
29 |
Ascophyllum nodosum
(Figure 1o) (P) |
Fucoidan |
Anti-elastase, gelatinase A inhibition, Inhibition of interleukin-1 beta in fibroblast cells |
[67] |
30 |
Ecklonia cava (P) |
Phlorotannins |
Photoprotectors against UV-B |
[68][69] |
31 |
Neoporphyra haitanensis,
Gracilaria chouae,
G. blodgetti (R) |
Agar |
Antioxidant,
Thickeners
Antitumor,
Radiation protector,
Antiaging |
[70][71] |
32 |
Turbinaria conoides (P) |
C, Chlorophyta; R, Rhodophyta; P, Phaeophyceae.
5. Pigments
Marine macroalgae have a broad diversity of photosynthetic pigments that capture light for the photosynthesis process. Chlorophyta (green algae) contain chlorophyll
a
C, Chlorophyta; R, Rhodophyta; P, Phaeophyceae.
76
C, Chlorophyta; R, Rhodophyta; P, Phaeophyceae.
87. Minerals
Depending on the environment in which macroalgae inhabit, they are highly diversified in mineral composition (especially with regards to trace elements including zinc, magnesium, aluminum, silica, copper, iodine, selenium, iron, manganese, and micronutrients including calcium, sodium, phosphorus, potassium, and chlorine).
Minerals have a very essential vital role as cofactors of different metalloenzymes
[168]. Moreover, a combination of calcium and magnesium improves barrier repairs in topical skincare products
[169]. Indeed, acid-induced burns are relieved by gel solution containing calcium gluconate solution
[170]. Likewise, magnesium silicate (talc) and magnesium sulphate (i.e., Epsom salts) have reported enhancement of skin benefits. Talc is most frequently useful in baby skin powders to prevent diaper rash. In adults, it can be used as a lubricant and to reduce wetness in the perineal and axillary areas
[171]. In addition, Boisseau et al.
[172] found improvements in skin softness and exfoliation, relief in muscle tension, and the promotion of relaxation by Epsom salts. They also reported the key regulatory role of Mg
++ and Ca
++ in the proliferation and differentiation of keratinocytes. Likewise, magnesium silicate (talc) and magnesium sulphate (Epsom salts) have reported enhancement of skin benefits.
Talc is most frequently useful in baby skin powders to prevent diaper rash as well as in adults to reduce wetness in the perineal and axilla areas (and as a lubricant)
[173]. They also reported the key regulatory role of Mg
++ and Ca
++ in the proliferation and differentiation of keratinocytes. ZnO-based skin protectants are cost-effective, easily formulated, and stable under aerobic conditions
[173][174]. Zinc oxide is superior to zinc sulphate to mitigate inflammation and enhance re-epithelization of partial-thickness porcine skin
[175]. Due to low water solubility, it sustains in the skin at the wound site. Newman et al.
[176] revealed the importance of skin in sunburned skin and under ultraviolet exposure. Bissett et al.
[177] found significantly delayed UV-induced tumors in Guinea pigs and mouse models by topical use of a 2-furildioxime (iron chelator).
98. Summary
Macroalgae are a valuable resource of bioactive components, with scientific evidence revealing their benefits for safer use in humans and wellbeing. Marine algae-derived molecules showed biological effects on the skin, such as skin whitening, antiaging, antiwrinkle, photoprotection, moisturizing, and collagen-boosting, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, anticellulite, antiviral, and anticancer activities. Moreover, many cosmeceutical companies already use marine algae extracts and have derived compounds from these extracts in their formulations. However, the biochemical profile monitoring of macroalgae presents a problem that industries need to overcome. The development of its cultivation and sustainable methods of extraction procedures shows the significant key for this confined, which is being analyzed with noteworthy benefits. However, more detail analysis requires to understand the exact mechanism of some compounds since some compounds have not been fully explored. Therefore, the further analysis and evaluation are essential to improve the quality of cosmetic formulations which will be useful to enhance consumers safety.