Summary

Hypertension is a major public health concern worldwide because of its rising prevalence and concomitant risks of cardiovascular diseases. Coping strategies may encompass a full spectrum of clinical, epidemiological, experimental, and technological factors to inspire front-line practices and shape critical thinking. This entry collection aims to assemble entries of wealthy topics related to clinical, therapeutic, and population sciences of hypertension and cardiovascular diseases that could inform research scientists and healthcare professionals.

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Topic Review
Atypically Shaped Cardiomyocytes
Atypically shaped cardiomyocytes (ACMs) are found in cultures of the cardiomyocyte-removed fraction obtained from cardiac ventricles from neonatal to aged mice. ACMs are thought to be a subpopulation of cardiomyocytes or immature cardiomyocytes, most closely resembling cardiomyocytes due to their spontaneous beating, well-organized sarcomere and the expression of cardiac-specific proteins, including some fetal cardiac gene proteins.
  • 1.2K
  • 11 Jul 2022
Topic Review
Macrophages as Potential Therapeutic Targets in Cardiovascular Disease
Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is one of the greatest public health concerns and is the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in the United States and worldwide. CVD is a broad yet complex term referring to numerous heart and vascular conditions, all with varying pathologies. Macrophages are one of the key factors in the development of these conditions. Macrophages play diverse roles in the maintenance of cardiovascular homeostasis, and an imbalance of these mechanisms contributes to the development of CVD.
  • 1.3K
  • 15 Jul 2022
Topic Review
Obstructive Sleep Apnea in Heart Failure
Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) is characterized by repetitive upper airway closure due to soft tissue collapse and genioglossus muscle relaxation in the upper airway resulting in apneas (cessation of breathing for 10 s or longer) and hypopneas (reductions in breathing coupled with desaturation and/or arousal). OSA is highly prevalent among patients with asymptomatic left ventricular systolic and diastolic dysfunction and congestive heart failure, and if untreated may contribute to the clinical progression of heart failure (HF).
  • 874
  • 06 Jul 2022
Topic Review
Wnt Signaling to Vascular Complications in T2DM
Vascular complications are the leading cause of morbidity and mortality among patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). These vascular abnormalities result in a chronic hyperglycemic state, which influences many signaling molecular pathways that initially lead to increased oxidative stress, increased inflammation, and endothelial dysfunction, leading to both microvascular and macrovascular complications. Endothelial dysfunction represents the initial stage in both types of vascular complications; it represents “mandatory damage” in the development of microvascular complications and only “introductory damage” in the development of macrovascular complications. Increasing scientific evidence has revealed an important role of the Wnt pathway in the pathophysiology of the vascular wall. It is well known that the Wnt pathway is altered in patients with T2DM. 
  • 1.2K
  • 04 Jul 2022
Topic Review
Diagnosis of Postural Tachycardia Syndrome and vasovagal Syncope
In children, vasovagal syncope and postural tachycardia syndrome constitute the major types of orthostatic intolerance. The clinical characteristics of postural tachycardia syndrome and vasovagal syncope are similar but their treatments differ. Therefore, their differential diagnosis is important to guide the correct treatment. Children suffering from vasovagal syncope or postural tachycardia syndrome might be treated using water, β-blockers, salt, or midodrine. However, the effificacy of the drugs varies. Biomarkers or certain hemodynamic parameters that can predict the treatment effects of individualized treatment for POTS or VVS have been used.
  • 2.9K
  • 08 Jul 2022
Topic Review
Epigenetics and Congenital Heart Diseases
Congenital heart disease (CHD) is a frequent occurrence, with a prevalence rate of almost 1% in the general population. However, the pathophysiology of the anomalous heart development is still unclear in most patients screened. A definitive genetic origin, be it single-point mutation or larger chromosomal disruptions, only explains about 35% of identified cases. The precisely choreographed embryology of the heart relies on timed activation of developmental molecular cascades, spatially and temporally regulated through epigenetic regulation: chromatin conformation, DNA priming through methylation patterns, and spatial accessibility to transcription factors. This multi-level regulatory network is eminently susceptible to outside disruption, resulting in faulty cardiac development. Similarly, the heart is unique in its dynamic development: growth is intrinsically related to mechanical stimulation, and disruption of the intrauterine environment will have a direct impact on fetal embryology. These two converging axes offer new areas of research to characterize the cardiac epigenetic regulation and identify points of fragility in order to counteract its teratogenic consequences.
  • 804
  • 28 Jun 2022
Topic Review
Obstructive Sleep Apnea and Cardiovascular Disease
Among the mechanisms which explain the association between obstructive sleep apnea and myocardial infarction (MI), common risk factors include male sex, age, hypertension, obesity, and smoking. However, other direct effects of obstructive sleep apnea merit consideration. The combination of repetitive apnea–hypopnea, hypoxia, and arousal from sleep increases sympathetic activity, which is maintained during wakefulness, thus increasing myocardial oxygen demand. The mechanistic understanding which connects obstructive sleep apnea and cardiovascular disease is poorly understood due to the diverse and complicated elements of obstructive sleep apnea and the multiple other comorbid conditions (especially obesity) impacting cardiovascular health. When obstructive apnea or hypopnea occurs, the upper airway collapses throughout sleep, affecting a complete or partial interruption of airflow even with sustained respiratory struggle. The sympathetic tone is stimulated, and respiratory work increases as opposed to the closed upper airway, increasing negative intrathoracic pressure. Stimulation of the sympathetic tone across the parasympathetic system affects heart rate and blood pressure. Awakening from sleep terminates the asphyxia event, with re-establishing airflow and re-oxygenation but further increased sympathetic tone. Obstructive sleep apnea seems to be correlated with increased levels of inflammatory cytokines. Furthermore, metabolic dysregulation is observed in obstructive sleep apnea patients (with abnormalities in both fat and glucose metabolism. 
  • 952
  • 27 Jun 2022
Topic Review
Extracellular Vesicles in Atherothrombosis
Atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) is the leading cause of morbidity and mortality all over the world. Extracellular vesicles (EVs), small lipid-bilayer membrane vesicles released by most cellular types, exert pivotal and multifaceted roles in physiology and disease. Emerging evidence emphasizes the importance of EVs in intercellular communication processes with key effects on cell survival, endothelial homeostasis, inflammation, neoangiogenesis, and thrombosis. The following content focuses on EVs as effective signaling molecules able to both derail vascular homeostasis and induce vascular dysfunction, inflammation, plaque progression, and thrombus formation as well as drive anti-inflammation, vascular repair, and atheroprotection.
  • 1.3K
  • 24 Jun 2022
Topic Review
Rieske Iron-Sulfur Protein in COPD and Pulmonary Hypertension
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is currently the third leading cause of death worldwide. The development of pulmonary hypertension (PH) accounts for the high mortality rate in COPD patients. Recent studies from the researchers' laboratory and others have highlighted the important role of reactive oxygen species (ROS) signaling in the development of COPD and associated PH. ROS are primarily generated in mitochondrial complex III in pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells (PASMCs). Rieske iron-sulfur protein (RISP), a catalytic subunit of mitochondrial complex III, is the major player in the generation of ROS. RISP plays a critical role in pulmonary vasoconstriction, remodeling, and hypertension.
  • 956
  • 17 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Lp(a) Paradox in Diabetes Mellitus
Lipoprotein(a) (Lp(a)) is one of the strongest causal risk factors of atherosclerotic disease. It is rich in cholesteryl ester and composed of apolipoprotein B and apo(a). Plasma Lp(a) levels are determined by apo(a) transcriptional activity driven by a direct repeat (DR) response element in the apo(a) promoter under the control of (HNF)4α Farnesoid-X receptor (FXR) ligands play a key role in the downregulation of APOA expression. In vitro studies on the catabolism of Lp(a) have revealed that Lp(a) binds to several specific lipoprotein receptors; however, their in vivo role remains elusive. In patients suffering from Type-I diabetes mellitus (T1DM), provided they are metabolically well-controlled, Lp(a) plasma concentrations are directly comparable to healthy individuals. In contrast, there exists a paradox in T2DM patients, as many of these patients have reduced Lp(a) levels; however, they are still at an increased cardiovascular risk. The Lp(a) lowering mechanism observed in T2DM patients is most probably caused by mutations in the mature-onset diabetes of the young (MODY) gene and possibly other polymorphisms in key transcription factors of the apolipoprotein (a) gene (APOA).
  • 838
  • 19 Jun 2022
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