Summary

On 11 March 2020, the World Health Organization declared COVID-19 a global pandemic, and the disease now affects nearly every country and region. Caused by SARS-CoV-2, COVID-19 continues nearly 18 months later to present significant challenges to health systems and public health in both hemispheres, as well as the economies of every country. The morbidity and mortality of the infection caused by SARS-CoV-2 has been significant, and various waves of disease outbreaks initially overwhelmed many hospitals and clinics and continue to do so in many countries. This influences everyone, and public health countermeasures have been dramatic in terms of their impact on employment, social systems, and mental health. This entry collection aims to gather diverse fields about COVID-19, including in epidemiology, public health, medicine, genetics, systems biology, informatics, data science, engineering, sociology, anthropology, nursing, environmental studies, statistics, and psychology.

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Entries
Topic Review
Immune Response to SARS-CoV-2 and mRNA Vaccines
The SARS-CoV-2 (severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus responsible for the COVID-19 disease) uses the Spike proteins of its envelope for infecting target cells expressing on the membrane the angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) enzyme that acts as a receptor. To control the pandemic, genetically engineered vaccines have been designed for inducing neutralizing antibodies against the Spike proteins. These vaccines do not act like traditional protein-based vaccines, as they deliver the message in the form of mRNA or DNA to host cells that then produce and expose the Spike protein on the membrane (from which it can be shed in soluble form) to alert the immune system. Since the genetically engineered vaccines have been modified to be more stable and because they are distributed via liponanoparticles to various tissues and organs, this type of products may cause unforeseen serious adverse effects.
  • 4.2K
  • 19 Apr 2023
Topic Review
Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme 2 (ACE-2) in COVID-19
The genetic variants of HLAs (human leukocyte antigens) play a crucial role in the virus–host interaction and pathology of COVID-19. The genetic variants of HLAs not only influence T cell immune responses but also B cell immune responses by presenting a variety of peptide fragments of invading pathogens. Peptide cocktail vaccines produced by using various conserved HLA-A2 epitopes provoke substantial specific CD8+ T cell responses in experimental animals. The HLA profiles vary among individuals and trigger different T cell-mediated immune responses in COVID-19 infections.
  • 401
  • 17 Apr 2023
Topic Review
Protection of Patient Data in Digital Oral
The use of digital health technologies, including telemedicine and teledentistry, has become a necessity in healthcare due to the SARS-CoV-19 pandemic. These technologies allow for the reduction of the workload of healthcare providers and the improvement of patient outcomes in cases of remote monitoring, diagnosis, and communication. While there are no doubtful benefits, there are some counterparts, such as concerns about clinical risks, data security, and privacy protection. 
  • 358
  • 13 Apr 2023
Topic Review
Humanitarian Activities against COVID-19 Disruption
The COVID-19 pandemic has affected more than 214 countries across the world, disrupting the supply of essential commodities. As the pandemic has spread, humanitarian activities (HAs) have attempted to manage the various situation but appear ineffective due to lack of collaboration and information sharing, inability to respond towards disruption, etc. Developing a sustainable humanitarian supply chain (HSC) for managing disasters/emergencies can be viewed as an extension of the traditional supply chain. Thus, sustainable HSCs have evolved as a specialized discipline with a focus on social sustainability. 
  • 529
  • 12 Apr 2023
Topic Review
Extracellular Vesicles for COVID-19
COVID-19 is an infectious disease caused by the novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) that first appeared in late 2019 and has since spread across the world. It is characterized by symptoms such as fever, cough, and shortness of breath and can lead to death in severe cases. To help contain the virus, measures such as social distancing, handwashing, and other public health measures have been implemented. Vaccine and drug candidates, such as those developed by Pfizer/BioNTech, AstraZeneca, Moderna, Novavax, and Johnson & Johnson, have been developed and are being distributed worldwide. Clinical trials for drug treatments such as remdesivir, dexamethasone, and monoclonal antibodies are underway and have shown promising results. 
  • 373
  • 11 Apr 2023
Topic Review
mRNA Vaccines against SARS-CoV-2
Coronaviruses are single-stranded positive-sense RNA (+ssRNA) viruses belonging to the Coronaviridae family. Their genome encodes replicase/transcriptase proteins, structural proteins and a set of non-structural proteins linked to their virulence and proofreading activities of the replicase complex. 
  • 387
  • 06 Apr 2023
Topic Review
Tumor Necrosis Factor-Alpha (TNF-α) in COVID-19
The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) became a worldwide concern at the beginning of 2020 and has affected millions. High levels of proinflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and interleukins are produced readily by innate immune cells to fight Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome-Coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) infections. The presented work describes the potential of TNF-α in the prognosis, therapeutic and management of COVID-19.
  • 347
  • 06 Apr 2023
Topic Review
COVID-19 Associated Pulmonary Thrombosis
Pulmonary thrombosis in situ is a pathological condition nonrelated to embolism from deep vein thrombosis (DVT) in the lower extremities. 
  • 307
  • 04 Apr 2023
Topic Review
The Pathophysiology of COVID-19 and T2DM Coagulopathy
Chronic inflammation and endothelium dysfunction are present in diabetic patients. COVID-19 has a high mortality rate in association with diabetes, partially due to the development of thromboembolic events in the context of coronavirus infection. Chronic inflammation, present in DM, enhances the synthesis of several cytokines. This chronic inflammatory state is preceded by a subclinical inflammatory response, represented by elevated IL-1β and IL-6 before the onset of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Endothelial dysfunction is also a consequence of Diabetes mellitus (DM) and leads to micro- and macroangiopathy, and concomitantly to hypercoagulability.
  • 400
  • 03 Apr 2023
Topic Review
mRNA-Based COVID-19 Vaccines Using Lipid Nanoparticles
Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) have recently emerged as one of the most advanced technologies for the highly efficient in vivo delivery of exogenous mRNA, particularly for COVID-19 vaccine delivery. LNPs comprise four different lipids: ionizable lipids, helper or neutral lipids, cholesterol, and lipids attached to polyethylene glycol (PEG). Since its first isolation in 1961, mRNA (that encodes the protein of interest) research has taken several paths, which made us understand its diversified functions and modification-mediated potential for therapeutic applications. As a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, nucleic acid therapeutics (NATs), particularly mRNA vaccines, potentials have been enabled for emerging infectious diseases. The translation of host genetic information (DNA) into proteins by ribosomes in the cytoplasm is mediated by mRNA.
  • 416
  • 31 Mar 2023
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